M Sc Dissertation(WII)
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Item Species Assemblage and Differential Basking Habitat Use of Freshwater Turtles in a Gradient of Mahanadi Riverine Ecosystem, Orissa(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2009) Jani, Chandan; Choudhury, B.C.; Sivakumar, K.Of the seven species of turtles recorded in the Mahanadi River, this study recorded five species of freshwater turtles between Satkosia Gorge Wildlife Sanctuary and Khakadi (Near Cuttack city) during November 2008 to April 2009. Of these five species, four were softshell turtles (Nilssonia gangeticus, Nilssonia hurum, Chura indica, Lissemys punctata) and one was hardshell (Pangshura tentoria). Relative abundance in terms of mean number of individuals sighted per kilometre was estimated. The results showed that Pangshura tentoria was most abundant and was recorded over all the sampling zones, followed by Nilssonia gangetic vs Nilssonia hurum and Chitra indica. The latter three were not distributed as commonly as the former. Lissemys punctata was not included in the report as the species never sighted during the sampling secession. However, the species was found to get captured in incidental fish catch during the study period. The low abundance of Chitra indica and Nilssonia hurum might be due to degradation of their habitats. These two species are known to refer undisturbed and wider river stretches which are diminishing in the Mahanadi River. The habitats of the river stretch between Satkosia Gorge Wildlife Sanctuary and Kakhadi varied significantly and thus, explaining the variation in the species richness as well as abundance. The major habitat variables, which have highly influenced the turtle abundance were river flow, river width and river bank characteristics. Highest abundance of species was found in the non-riparian flow zones and river stretches with rocky and sandy banks, where the habitat heterogeneity was greater. These two sampling zones also experienced the least anthropogenic pressures. Choice in habitat use for basking in turtles was also observed. The choice of the habitat varied between species. Nilssonia gangetic and Nilssonia hurum preferred areas which had greater river bank width with shallow water near the bank. Chitra indica preferred areas where both river depth and river width were higher whereas bank slope, river slope, ground cover, alternative basking substrate and immediate water depth was lower. Pangshura tentoria preferred areas with greater river and bank slope along with greater availability of alternative basking substrate and greater immediate water depth. On the other hand they also preferred the habitat more close to the river with lower bank width and moderate river depth and moderate river width. Major threats to turtles in the Mahanadi river (sampling zones) are due to anthropogenic pressure and habitat degradation. Some of the threats were found to be consistent over the sampling zones. The study shows that Pangshura tentoria was highly tolerant to all prevailing threats in the Mahanadi river but, Nilssonia hurum and Chitra indica were adversely affected by these threats all along the river. This study found that there was a negative correlation between the turtle abundance and presence of threats such as sand mining, pump house, fishing and pollution. Sand mining adversely affected the basking habitat of most of the turtle species. Pump houses were largely avoided by the turtles which may be due to the vibrations or noise created at these stations. Unintentional by-catch of turtles during fishing was also observed especially in the braided flow zones and inundated static flow zones of the Mahanadi river. Sand mining and fishing are identified as the major threats to the turtles in the Mahanadi river, which should be monitored and regulated. Sand mining should not be allowed during the breeding season of the turtles especially in the area of Non riperian flow zone and braided flow zone. These two sampling zones were identified as the Important Turtles Areas (ITAs) in the Mahanadi River. Alternate livelihood options should be identified and implemented in order to reduce people's dependency on fishing in this region. Nature education and awareness programme clearly addressing the reason for declining of turtles and their habitat in the Mahanadi river needs to be launched.Item Habitat use and food selection by wild and domestic ungulates in the Sikkim Transhimalaya.(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2007) Chanchani, Pranav; Rawat, G.S.By defining a resource, determining the resources available to animals and sampling the array of resources actually used by an animal (Krebs 1999), it becomes possible to gauge the nature of interactions between species. This study explored aspects of resource use by diverse assemblage of wild and domestic herbivores including The Tibetan argali (Ovis ammon hodgsoni), Tibetan Gazelle (Procapra picticaudata), kiang (Equus kiang), blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), domestic yak and sheep in a Trans-Himalayan environment during the lean winter period. Sampling was carried out in a systematic manner using trails, as well as by sampling opportunistically. To quantify vegetation, a 3.52 Ian grid was overlaid on an image of the study area, and grids were randomly picked from these for random sampling. A number of habitat and vegetation variables were measured or noted for all ungulate sightings or within vegetation sampling stations and these were used in analysis to ascertain patterns of habitat use and food selection. U sing a hierarchy of spatial scales, the study modeled animal distributions, and investigated the use of habitats and food habits of ungulates in relation to the availability of these resources in their environment. The study's major findings were that all ungulates were found to occur in the true Trans-Himalaya except for the blue sheep which selected more mountainous terrain in the transition zone between the greater and Trans-Himalaya .. Statistical tests of significance revealed that ungulates differed from one another or from random in their use of resources. Further, terrain features appeared to influence habitat selection to a greater-extent than vegetation. Finally, the findings of this research indicate that although the wild and domestic ungulates of this region all exist in relatively large numbers, they tend to vary in their use of habitats and food either by differences in their distribution, or in the selection of finer environmental (habitat and food) variables. The study therefore concludes that competitive inter-specific interactions are not very apparent in this region.Item Habitat use by Chital (Cervus axis) in Dhaulkhand, Rajaji National Park, India(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 1993) Bhat, Sridhar D.; Rawat, G.S.A study on the habitat use by chital or spotted deer (Cervus axis) was conducted in Dhaulkhand Rajaji National Park, from November 1992 to May 1993. The objectives of the study were to understand the spatio-temporal use of habitats by chital and to identify the factors that govern the patterns of habitat use. Foot transects were used to estimate the densities of chital and quantify the availability and utilization of resources.Item Habitat Use, Group Size and Activity Pattern of Goral (Nemorhaedus goral) in Simbalbara Sanctury (Himachal Pradesh) and Darpur Reserved Forest (Haryana) India(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 1993) Pendharkar, Anand; Goyal, S.P.A study on the habitat use, group size and activity patterns of goral (Nemorhaedus goral) was undertaken from November 1922 to May 1993 in Simbalbara Sanctuary (Himachal Pradesh) and Darpur Reserved Forest (Haryana). Data on availability of habitat types, vegetation types, slope, aspect and cover and their corresponding use (N=230 sightings), were collected along six search paths. Group size and activity pattern data were collected by walking along search paths and using instantaneous scan sampling. The broad habitat types identified were: Valley slope, Grassy slope, Ridge top flat, Nala slope, Valley bottom flat, Ridge top slope and Valley ridge slope. The vegetation types identified in the study area were: Sal forest (SF), mixed forest (MF), mixed forest grassy slope (MFGS), mixed forest riverine (MFR), sal forest riverine (SFR), pine-mixed woodland (PMW) and mixed forests with khai plantation (MFKP).The characteristic features of habitat and vegetation types and seasonal variations in them are discussed.The major findings of availability-utilization analysis were : Goral shewed preferential use of grassy slopes in summer. Valley bottom flat was used less in both the seasons. Mixed Forest was preferred in both seasons, whereas Mixed Forest Grassy Slopes were preferred only in summer. Sal Forest, Sal Forest Riverine and Mixed Forest with Khair Plantations were used less in both the seasons. A preferential use of the steep slopes was observed in winter. In summer there seemed to be no selection for terrain type. South facing slopes were preferred in both the seasons. Extremely low shrub cover and medium grass cover were selectively used by goral. Major features of goral group size and activity pattern were: Goral was predominantly a solitary species forming loose aggregations of upto eleven individuals. Average group size of goral did not vary significantly (N=230, d. f.=3, p=0.05, X" - 0.98) between seasons, but during late evening hours, comparatively larger groups were observed in winter (N=127, d.f.=4, p=<0.02, X2 - 12.42). Group sizes were comparatively larger in disturbed areas (N=230, d. f.=3, i i i p<0.01, = 12.75). A significant difference in proportion of time spent in different activities was observed (N=416, c/.f. = 8, p<0.001, X2 = 37.59), between winter and summer. Nevertheless, activities and proportions of active and inactive individuals varied significantly over different hours of the day (N=192, d.f.=2, p<0.01 , 10.43).Item Habitat Use by Goral (Nemorhaedus goral bedfordi) in Majhatal Harsang Wildlife Sanctuary Himachal Pradesh, India(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 1993) Mishra, Charudutt; Johnsingh, A.J.T.Studied the habitat use pattern of goral (Nemorhaedus goral bedfordi} in Majhatal Harsang Wildlife Sanctuary in the Himalaya to determine its habitat requirements. Of special interest were the roles of forage availability and quality and the antipredator strategy of goral in determining its habitat selection. These factors are of paramount importance in influencing the habitat selection by mountain ungulates. Diet composition of goral in terms of the proportions of graminoids versus browse was determined through pellet analysis. Its escape strategy was determined by direct observation. These results were then related to the actual habitat use patterns, which were determined by obtaining and quantifying locations of goral (n=334) over two seasons, along five monitoring trails. Use of each habitat category was interpreted with respect to its availability. A non-mapping technique was used for determining the availability of each habitat component. I identified nine vegetation types based on physiognomy and floristics. These were: Open Pine Community (OPC), Dense Pine Forest (DPF), Open Oak-Pine Community (OOPC), Dense Oak-Pine Forest (DOPF), Nullah Oak Forest with Low undergrowth (NOFL), Nullah Oak Forest with High undergrowth (NOFH), Euphorbia-Woodfordia-Dodoenia Scrub (EWDS), Open Euphorbia Scrub (OES) and Low Altitude Nullah Forest (LANF). Both forage quality and the antipredator strategy had a profound influence on habitat selection by goral. Goral was a grazer. It was partial to the younger, more nutritive grass phenophases - a prediction that can be made on the basis of its small body size. It preferred open areas with extensive grass cover. Forest cover, along with cliffs, was an important escape area for goral. But it avoided areas with extensive shrub cover. Such areas have little grass. Besides, the shrub cover obstructs visibility and quick movement, and makes the animal vulnerable to predation.Item Aspects of Foraging, Activity, Habitat Use and Demography of Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis Linn.) in Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2003) Kandel, Ram Chandra; Jhala, Y.V.The study was conducted between November 2002 to June 2003 in the Royal Chitwan National Park, in Central Terai which arbors the largest population of the Great One-honed Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis Linn) in Nepal. I studied time Activity budget, Habitat use, preference, food habits and ranging pattern of free ranging rhinos by continuously monitoring them from elephant back for 130.5 hrs (10 sessions of 7-24 hr each)Item Habitat use by the Great Indian Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) and the other sympatric large herbivores in Kaziranga National Park(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2001) Banerjee, Gitanjali; Rawat, G.S.; Choudhury, B.C.A study on the habitat use by the Great One horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) and three other sympatric ungulates was carried out in Kaziranga National Park (KNP), Assam during December 2000 to April 2001. KNP supports more than half the world's population of the Indian Rhinoceros, a highly endangered species. Since this park also supports a high diversity and density of herbivores coexisting in a typical floodplain habitat, it was an ideal place to conduct the following study. The study aimed to determine how 4 large herbivore species rhino, wild buffalo, swamp deer and hog deer achieve spatial and temporal separation across two seasons. The study also investigated how nutritive content of the forage determines habitat selection by these species. KNP was an ideal place to study habitat use patterns by these four sympatric species due to the seasonal variation of forage quality caused by the practice of annual burning. Sampling for animal abundance within each habitat type over two seasons was done by monitoring transects. Feeding observations were obtained by scan sampling. Laboratory analysis was done to determine the nutritive content of the available forage during winter and summer. Seasonal and spatial differences observed in habitat occupancy patterns by the ungulate species within KNP seem to be a way of partitioning resources in order to minimize competition. During the winter season all ungulates selected the short grasslands for feeding. The wild buffalo and the swamp deer showed no variation in the habitat occupancy patterns showing a positive selection for the short grasslands. However, rhinos and hog deer were observed to prefer the tall, burnt and sprouting grasslands in summer for feeding during summer. When habitat occupancy patterns were correlated with the nutritive value of the forage it was found that all ungulates tracked high crude protein levels in available forage. Rhinos and hog deer formed an association that exploited areas that have high crude protein and low silica content. Wild buffaloes and swamp deer show less flexibility in habitat occupancy patterns and were observed to feed in short grasslands where there was a relatively high amount of crude protein available during both the seasons. The study revealed that crude protein played an important role in determining habitat use by hog deer, which shows a linear relationship with crude protein. Forage volume, an indicator of available food played a significant role in determining habitat use patterns for the large bodied ungulates, namely the rhino and the wild buffalo which is in keeping with their physiology and body requirements. There seems to be partitioning of space by the ungulates on the basis of body size and dietary separation. Rhino and hog deer were observed to formed one guild whereas wild buffalo and swamp deer formed another one. These two groups differed in the pattern of habitat occupancy suggesting that ecological separation in Kaziranga National Park, perhaps occurs on the basis of differential use of the habitat by ungulates that have a similar body size. There was an observed complementation of body sizes within each association. A large bodied ungulate associated with another ungulate that was much smaller in size. and therefore, had different ecological needs.Item Seasonal Change in Social Structure, Behaviour and Habitat Use by Sarus Crane in the Semi Arid Region of North-Western India(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2001) Latt, Tin Nwe; Choudhury, B.C.The seasonal change in social structure and habitat use by sarus cranes was examined in the semi arid region of North- western India. The study was conducted in Keoladeo Ghana National Park and in the surrounding areas in Bharatpur district of Rajasthan. The methods involved censusing of cranes in the park and in surrounding areas by moving on motorcycle in preidentified routes. The detailed methodology included quantification of habitat availability and focal and scan sampling for studying the behaviour of sarus crane. Eight sarus groups were intensively monitored to examine parent and juvenile relationships and juvenile weaning process. The mean encounter rate of sarus crane outside the park was greater than that of inside. Though the data was not tested for the lack of uniform effort in these two areas, the difference is likely to be statistically significant. The overall group composition during the study period differed inside and outside of the park. The agricultural areas outside had greater number of social family group sighted during the study period than within the park. The mean encounter rates had greater standard errors associated with them outside the park than inside the park. During the present study most of the social family, pair, congregation, and solitary crane were seen outside of the park except that of pair with juvenile. The seasons (winter and summer) had an influence on the sarus crane group composition apart from the fact that the groups were either seen within the protected area or outside. With the data from the present study it is not possible to test the effects of these two variables on the sarus group composition. However, in winter sarus cranes were seen in social family and pair with juvenile more often inside the park than outside the park. The other forms of groups of sarus such as social group, pair and solitary members were not very different inside and outside the park. In winter season, juveniles were not able to fly more than 0.61 m height and 45m distances restricting their movements within the park. During summer the juveniles could fly outside of the park in the 1st week of February onwards and were seen frequently outside of the park. Sarus cranes spent more time outside the park than inside, except pairs with juveniles. Inside the park the safety, food and space supported small groups and pairs all through the year. The group composition showed a dramatic change in summer where greater number of social family and pair with juveniles were observed outside the park than inside, while other forms of groups did not vary much in the two areas. During the study period a maximum of 67 sarus cranes were recorded inside the park in roosting areas. During the study period, wetlands were the most used habitat by sarus cranes than any other habitat types. Grasslands and dry wetlands were used distinctly by sarus next to the wetlands, and the agricultural fields have the least utilization. The later could be because of bias in sampling more inside the park than in the agricultural fields outside the park. During summer, the sarus cranes occurred more often in wetland and grasslands than in dry wetland or agricultural fields. During winter and summer sarus cranes mostly used wetland habitat (winter 20.5 % & summer 35%). In late summer, as all agriculture field were harvested and there was no water patches outside the park. The Forest Department pumped in water throughout the late winter and summer in the areas where group no (Block L), group no.4 (Block D) and group no.5 (Block E) spent more of their time. During summer, sarus cranes used this shallow water. The area where group no.3 (Block K) sarus stayed much of the time had very large grasslands. Within this area the wetland was closer to road and sarus crane appeared to be stressed while foraging in this wetland. The large expanse of grasslands used by group no. 3 (Block K) area, it prevented people to approach closer to the cranes and hence they used this grassland extensively during summer. Among the pair, the female was more the wary and cautious while using these water patches. Solitary sarus cranes preferred foraging in grasslands. In summer, water spread became small and narrow and sarus cranes spent more time in grasslands (winter 5% & summer 12%). Sarus crane did not use dry wetlands in summer due to lack of moisture in this area which, hinders growth of grasses and other aquatic flora and also insects in such dry wetlands were less. Generally, sarus crane used agriculture land more for foraging at the time of sowing and harvesting of cereal and pulses. The encounter rates (sightings/ hour) of sarus crane correlated with water level. During large water spread times, more cranes were encountered. Water depth was correlated with mean encounter rates (r= 0.77, N= 1 Z) , similarly water spread also had a significant positive correlation (r=0.64, N= 12). As expected water depth and water spread had a strong positive correlation (r=0.95, N= 12). At the beginning of the study in November the juveniles were estimated to be three months old, and when the study was concluded in May, the juveniles were nine months old and they continued to remain in the vicinity of the parents. Although the distance increased with time it is speculated that the quantum of time spent by the adults parenting the juvenile would diminish with time and also the distance between parents and juveniles. The major interaction between parent and juvenile during the observation period was "nursing" behaviour, where the parent fed the juvenile directly into its mouth. Subsequently, the parent "induced the juvenile to forage" by leading the juvenile to some areas in the wetland where food was abundant and the disturbance from tourists was low. From the last week of February juvenile started to move farther away from the parents and maintained an average distance of about 65 m. During this time the parents started courtship behaviour and paid less attention to the juveniles, even though the juveniles showed interest on their parents. In reciprocation of the lack of attention from the parents the juveniles continued to forage away from the parents. Till the end of the study period in May the juvenile still continued to tag along with the parents. To summarize, seasonal shift in sarus crane social structure was observed in the study area. Following factors appear to affect the sarus crane group structure and behaviour: (a) Availability and limitation of food.(b) Changes and availability of water in wetland. (c) Age of juveniles appears to be a factor for their attachment to parents.(d) The diurnal weather appears to be relative to sarus crane behaviour and social structure,which change on cloudy, sunny and rainy days .Item Ranging, Activity Patterns and Habitat Use of Blackbuck and Nilgai in Velavadar National Park, Gujarat, India(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2001) Sahabandhu, H. Dhanushki R.; Chellam, Ravi; Mathur, V.B.I studied the activity patterns, ranging and habitat use of blackbuck (Antelope cervicapra rajputanae) and nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) in Velavadar National Park from November 2000 to April 2001. Scan sampling was used to record blackbuck and nilgai activity patterns. Herds were also followed from sunrise to sunset to study the diurnal movements. Satellite imagery was used for vegetation mapping. Habitat availability and usage of both species were examined by plotting the grazing circuit on the satellite imagery. Activity patterns were found to differ amongst the various social groups, habitats and seasons. Temporal variations in foraging time and resting time were found in all the groups studied. Blackbuck had three foraging peaks and two resting peaks as compared to nilgai, which had two, and one peaks respectively. Diurnal distances were not found to differ in any of the different blackbuck or nilgai groups or between the two species. Differences between blackbuck herds in different seasons and habitats were attributed to the nutritional levels and the spatial dispersion of vegetation. Foraging behaviour decreased in summer supporting results of previous studies that blackbuck reduced foraging due to lower nutrition levels. Male blackbuck was found to forage 67% compared to 58% by females. This difference was attributed to larger body size in males, and the upcoming rutting/lekking season. No difference was found between nilgai males and females, except usage by females was slightly more in high nutritional areas. Female nilgai were found to become more selective in summer, by increasing their foraging time from 43% to 55%. But no difference in habitat usage was found, possibly due to sustenance from Prosopis juliflora pods. Blackbuck were found to spend more time foraging (53%) compared to nilgai (43%). This was due to blackbuck being more selective in the prevailing drought conditions, while nilgai were possibly supplementing their diet with P Juliflora pods. Differences between the two species in temporal allocation of foraging time was found which was ascribed to difference in gut capacity. No seasonal differences were found between the two species, except that nilgai were found to be using high nutrition areas. Nilgai were found to be more selective nutritionally than blackbuck, possibly due to nilgai being an intermediate feeder compared to blackbuck, which are coarse bulk feeders.Item Habitat Use by Rodents in a Sandy Habitat Around Sam, Western Rajasthan(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 1999) Mukherjee, Shomen; Goyal, S.P.Earlier studies on rodents in the Thar have recorded only the broad habitat types in which the different species occur. Except Rogovin el al. (1994), no other study has looked into microhabitat use by rodents. The present study aims to look at habitat use by three species of gerbils in a sandy habitat: The macro and microhabitat use by three species of rodents viz. Gerbillus gleadowi, G.nanus and Meriones hurrianae, in a sandy habitat, receiving rainfall of around 100-200 mm, was studied in Thar desert. Three distinct sandy habitats (Stabilized dunes Barren dune and Interdune), within 4 sq. km. area around Sam, Jaisalmer. was selected for the study. Due to zero captures after 500 trap nights, the use of Sherman traps was discontinued. Instead, circular track plots made out of chalk powder were used for looking at microhabitat use within each of the habitats. Track identification, up to species level, was first standardized from live specimens in captivity and then used in field. A total of sixteen variables representing habitat complexity (vertical), heterogeneity (horizontal) and phenology were enumerated around each plots. G. gleadowi was found to be the most abundant species, occupying all the three habitats. G. nanus was found to inhabit the Stabilised and Interdunal areas, while M. hurrianae was present only in the Interdune. Factor analysis using principle component extraction was used to determine the microhabitat characteristics. G. gleadowi was the sole occupant of Barren dune, where it did not show preference for any particular microhabitat. ' During winter, in Stabilised and Interdune, G. gleadowi was found using areas with relatively less compact soil, lower mean vegetation height and fewer number of hummocks compared to G. nanus. In summer, the species still continued using areas with relatively lower soil compactness, mean vegetation height and fewer hummocks compared to G. nanus, but showed higher use of areas with more ground cover (vegetation) compared to winter. G. nanus was found using areas with relatively more compact soil, higher mean vegetation height and greater number of hummocks. Overall, G. gleadowi was found to use the maximum range of microhabitats compared to the other two species. The summer niche space of G. gleadowi was found to be greater than its winter niche. During summer it was found using areas with more ground cover, higher percentage mature leaves, young leaves and fruits. M hurrianae was found to have a strict association with Capparis decidua tree, under which it burrows. The species is probably facing microhabitat loss due to collection of C. decidua poles by villagers.