Theses and Dissertations

The present study was intended to improve upon the existing ecological and genetic knowledge base of the severely fragmented and isolated population of sangai in the Keibul Lamjao National Park. The major objectives of the study were to estimate the abundance and demographic parameters of sangai and the associated cervids in the Park and to assess the genetic variability using mtDNA (cytochrome b and control region) genes and polymorphic microsatellite markers so as to develop appropriate measures for the conservation of this endangered species. The demographic status of sangai and hog deer in Keibul Lamjao National Park was determined by conducting the population estimation exercise during 2006 - 2008 using point count method. Deers were counted from eighteen bamboo machans and four observation points.

Otters are obligately tied to aquatic environments and are recognized as one of the top predators in the freshwater systems. Major threats to otter survival are the loss of wetland habitats, reduction in prey biomass and pollution. Developmental projects such as dams and barrages, and aquaculture activities have taken their toll on wetlands and consequently on the otters. Poaching, however, remains a major threat to their survival. The study was envisaged to appraise the impacts of making of dams on the ecology of otters in Corbett Tiger Reserve, since it is believed that the habitat of otters got fragmented due to the creation of a dam on the Ramganga River under the Kalagarh Multipurpose Hydroelectric Project. It is generally believed that dams affect otter. In the Corbett Tiger reserve both smooth-coated and Eurasian otter have been reported. Our preliminary survey revealed that at the low lying areas such as the Ramganga, Mandal and Palain rivers, smooth-coated otter occurs. This study complies with smooth coated otter limited to the above mentioned areas only and data were collected for winter and summer seasons respectively between 2001 and 2004. The study was conducted with the following objectives: (a) To study the status and distribution pattern of otters in the Corbett Tiger Reserve and the adjacent aquatic ecosystems. (b) To examine the Resource use pattern of otters in relation to habitat and food availability. (c) To study the potential threats to otter populations in the study area.

Resource selection of Smooth-coated Otter Lutrogale perspicillata was studied in the Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary, where a two dimensional interface of fishermen-otter present: fishermen fishing in the habitat of otter and otters feeding in the aquaculture farms of fishermen. This is resulting in conflict between Otters and Humans in the region. In this context, this study was carried out to understand the extent of this conflict by studying the food habit of otters and ecological factors that could affect the otter distribution in this mangrove ecosystem. 2. The study was carried out from December 2014 to April 2015 in and around the Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary, which is located at the mouth of the Godavari River, in Andhra Pradesh. 3. Food habit of otters was studied by analysing their spraints that were collected from different parts of the Sanctuary. Habitat and distribution of otters were studied using belt transacts along creeks as otters mostly used banks of the creeks. Further, people perspectives towards otter and intensity of human-otter interface was studied using interview based questionnaire surveys. 4. It was found that the fishes cultured in the aquaculture farms were not present in the creeks of Coringa WLS. 6. The diet analysis of 81 spraints collected from December 2014 to March 2015 revealed that fish comprise of 99% of Smooth coated Otter diet. Of this major portion comprised of Mystus gulio, Oreochromis mossambicus and Liza tade. These species were also found in high abundance during the fish sampling from which relative abundance was calculated. This indicates that Otters in the sanctuary are opportunistic feeder rather than selective. 7. Mystus gulio (long whiskers catfish) found to be the major prey of otter in the Coringa . WLS, constituting 17.8% of weight of all food items found in the spraints and this fish was also eaten by many otters (found in 13.4% of spraints). M gulio was also the most common fishes of the Sanctuary. M gulio followed by Oreochromis mossambicus (Tilapia) constituting 14.6% of weight of all food items found in the spraints. 9. Although, all five major aquaculture species offish were found in the spraints of Otter but overall, the aqua farm fishes constituted only the 14.4% of weight of total foods items found in the spraints of otter. Of the total spraints collected, only 17.8% of spraints contained the aqua farm fishes and remaining 82.2 % otter spraints did not have. aqua farms fishes and these otters were seems to be eaten only the wild fishes. 10. The high abundance of invasive tilapia was found in the Ramannapalem creek, which is a less saline creeks adjoining with aqua farms and villages. This fish was the second most preferred diet of otters in the area. This fish breeds in the grasses that are at the banks of creeks. Breeding tilapia was a easier target for otters and therefore, otters were seen close to aqua farms. 11. The factors essential for Otter survival in were found to be more towards land and decrease with increasing distance from land. An ordinal regression model with sign intensity in three ranks revealed that the factors that are playa significant role in Otter distribution are distance from sea had a positive effect on Otter distribution (estimate = 0.403, Standard error =0.225 and P value= 0.073), Width of channel also had a positive effect to an extent (estimate =0.509, Standard error =0.273 and P value = 0.062). Depth of the creek had a negative effect (estimate= -0.624, Standard error = 0.322 and P value=O.053). 12. As the factors that are positively influencing Otter distribution are near villages Otters signs were also found highest in creeks near villages. Thus it was concluded that the presence of Otters mostly towards villages is probably due to presence of suitable habitat near villages rather than fish from aquaculture farms. 13. Fishermen's Traditional Ecological Knowledge of Otters in and around the Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary had also confirmed that otters largely feed in the wild but visit aqua farms occasionally for food or to play. Further, about 79% of people in the region felt that Otters visit their farms at night that confirms the nocturnal behaviour of Otters around human habitation, which is supported by previous studies 14. Further, most of fishermen (75%) believed that otters are high threat to aquaculture when compared to fishing cat and jackals. This is due to group hunting behaviours of otters, whereas fishing cats and jackals visit aquaculture ponds solitarily 15. Interestingly, nearly 11 % of fishermen felt that Otters have caused an income loss of 1-5% followed by 9% of respondents who claimed a loss of 10-30%. But, few farmers (2%) felt that Otters cause nearly 30-50% of loss, who were in the low income group and who can not offer even small loss in income. 16. Generalized Linear Model (GLM) with Poisson distribution revealed that both income and education of fishermen positively influenced their perspectives towards conservation importance of otters in the region. 17. Majority of fishermen (65%) believed that there was a decline in the sightings of otters and they have also believed that the population had been declined in the region. However, in contrast, about 13% of them felt that there was an increase in Otter population over years and most of these respondents who have also believed that high loss of income due to otters visits to their aqua farms. 18. Most of the aqua-farm owners admitted that they always scare and chase away otters when they visits their farms. Though only 11 % of them opted for killing does not mean that people have a positive attitude towards Otter. Boxplot analysis to understand the relationship between people's action towards visiting otters to their farms and their income and education, has revealed that the farm owners who had less income have tried to kill the visiting otters due to their poverty. 19. This study found that fishermen with poverty could not bear even the meagre loss caused by otters to them. Further, the study found that less educated people against the otters in the region. Therefore, additional livelihoods and awareness education to those poor fishermen need to be provided for the long term conservation of otters in the region. EGREE Foundation of Andhra Pradesh, a foundation established with support of GoI-UNDP-GEF Project to sustainably manage the Godavari estuarine has already initiated some programme in this regard but their programme should focus more on fishermen who are with low income 20. It is also proposed to have otter proof fencing for aquafarms especially those farms located along the Ramanapallam creeks. Developing eco- tourism in the sanctuary with the involvement of fishermen and small scale farm owners can also change their attitude towards otters.

Theses and Dissertations

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