Theses and Dissertations
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Item Ecology and Management of Lion and ungulate habitats in Gir.(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 1995) Sharma, Diwakar; Johnsingh, A.J.T.The Gir is the only refuge of the Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica) in its range. This implies that long term conservation of the Asiatic lion will remain an overirding management objective. A study on the impacts of management practices on lion and ungulate habitat was conducted in Gir Protected Area (PA) from June 1991 to July 1994. The Gir . PA includes Gir Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park. It is situated between 200 55' to 21 0 20 'N and 700 25' to 71 0 15' E in the Southern part of Kathiawar peninsula in western Gujarat. Gir PA (hereafter Gir) is located about 60km South of Junagadh. The area which was .3,107 sq km iIi 1877 (Joshi 1976) has been presently reduced to 1,412 sq km, o~ which about 259 sq Ian is national nark. Gir is the last refuge of the wild Asiatic lions (Panthera leo persica) and long term conservation of the Asiatic lion is an overriding management objective of Gir. In order to improve habitat conditions in Gir, the park authorities, over the last 20-25 years have made some management interventions such as relocation of some maldharis (local graziers), reduction in livestock grazing (specially migrant livestock during the rainy season) and fire control. These measures have led to vegetational recovery and increase in wild ungulate and lion populations. Understanding this vegetational recovery was thought to be crucial to determine the extent of management intervention required. It also needed to be determined if the trend (especially in the western Gir) was toward a higher woody proportion both at shrub and tree levels, and whether this in long term would adversely affect ' the distribution and abundance of ungulates, and therefore, group hunting by the lions, their pride size and territoriality.Item Habitat Selection by Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus linn) in Gir forest, India(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 1993) Trivedi, Pranav; Johnsingh, A.J.T.A study on habitat selection by Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus) was carried out in Gir National Park and Sanctuary over a period of five months. Open width line transects were laid at three study sites in West, Central and East Gir respectively to obtained information on availabili ty and use of habitats. Three hundred and thirty sightings were obtained in 90 transect walks (totalling to ca 113 km), of which two hundred and fifty occurred in West, and forty each in Central and East Gir. As sampling intensity was the highest in Sasan (West Gir), much of the analyses is based on the data collected here. Peafowl distribution was found to be clumped, with the degree and site of clumping being affected by water and food availabilityItem Habitat Use, Group Size and Activity Pattern of Goral (Nemorhaedus goral) in Simbalbara Sanctury (Himachal Pradesh) and Darpur Reserved Forest (Haryana) India(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 1993) Pendharkar, Anand; Goyal, S.P.A study on the habitat use, group size and activity patterns of goral (Nemorhaedus goral) was undertaken from November 1922 to May 1993 in Simbalbara Sanctuary (Himachal Pradesh) and Darpur Reserved Forest (Haryana). Data on availability of habitat types, vegetation types, slope, aspect and cover and their corresponding use (N=230 sightings), were collected along six search paths. Group size and activity pattern data were collected by walking along search paths and using instantaneous scan sampling. The broad habitat types identified were: Valley slope, Grassy slope, Ridge top flat, Nala slope, Valley bottom flat, Ridge top slope and Valley ridge slope. The vegetation types identified in the study area were: Sal forest (SF), mixed forest (MF), mixed forest grassy slope (MFGS), mixed forest riverine (MFR), sal forest riverine (SFR), pine-mixed woodland (PMW) and mixed forests with khai plantation (MFKP).The characteristic features of habitat and vegetation types and seasonal variations in them are discussed.The major findings of availability-utilization analysis were : Goral shewed preferential use of grassy slopes in summer. Valley bottom flat was used less in both the seasons. Mixed Forest was preferred in both seasons, whereas Mixed Forest Grassy Slopes were preferred only in summer. Sal Forest, Sal Forest Riverine and Mixed Forest with Khair Plantations were used less in both the seasons. A preferential use of the steep slopes was observed in winter. In summer there seemed to be no selection for terrain type. South facing slopes were preferred in both the seasons. Extremely low shrub cover and medium grass cover were selectively used by goral. Major features of goral group size and activity pattern were: Goral was predominantly a solitary species forming loose aggregations of upto eleven individuals. Average group size of goral did not vary significantly (N=230, d. f.=3, p=0.05, X" - 0.98) between seasons, but during late evening hours, comparatively larger groups were observed in winter (N=127, d.f.=4, p=<0.02, X2 - 12.42). Group sizes were comparatively larger in disturbed areas (N=230, d. f.=3, i i i p<0.01, = 12.75). A significant difference in proportion of time spent in different activities was observed (N=416, c/.f. = 8, p<0.001, X2 = 37.59), between winter and summer. Nevertheless, activities and proportions of active and inactive individuals varied significantly over different hours of the day (N=192, d.f.=2, p<0.01 , 10.43).Item Habitat Use by Goral (Nemorhaedus goral bedfordi) in Majhatal Harsang Wildlife Sanctuary Himachal Pradesh, India(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 1993) Mishra, Charudutt; Johnsingh, A.J.T.Studied the habitat use pattern of goral (Nemorhaedus goral bedfordi} in Majhatal Harsang Wildlife Sanctuary in the Himalaya to determine its habitat requirements. Of special interest were the roles of forage availability and quality and the antipredator strategy of goral in determining its habitat selection. These factors are of paramount importance in influencing the habitat selection by mountain ungulates. Diet composition of goral in terms of the proportions of graminoids versus browse was determined through pellet analysis. Its escape strategy was determined by direct observation. These results were then related to the actual habitat use patterns, which were determined by obtaining and quantifying locations of goral (n=334) over two seasons, along five monitoring trails. Use of each habitat category was interpreted with respect to its availability. A non-mapping technique was used for determining the availability of each habitat component. I identified nine vegetation types based on physiognomy and floristics. These were: Open Pine Community (OPC), Dense Pine Forest (DPF), Open Oak-Pine Community (OOPC), Dense Oak-Pine Forest (DOPF), Nullah Oak Forest with Low undergrowth (NOFL), Nullah Oak Forest with High undergrowth (NOFH), Euphorbia-Woodfordia-Dodoenia Scrub (EWDS), Open Euphorbia Scrub (OES) and Low Altitude Nullah Forest (LANF). Both forage quality and the antipredator strategy had a profound influence on habitat selection by goral. Goral was a grazer. It was partial to the younger, more nutritive grass phenophases - a prediction that can be made on the basis of its small body size. It preferred open areas with extensive grass cover. Forest cover, along with cliffs, was an important escape area for goral. But it avoided areas with extensive shrub cover. Such areas have little grass. Besides, the shrub cover obstructs visibility and quick movement, and makes the animal vulnerable to predation.Item Diurnal and Seasonal Activity Pattern of Water Monitor (Varanus salvator) in Bhitakanika Wildlife Sanctuary, India(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 1993) Pandav, Bivash; Choudhury, B.C.This study investigated the diurnal and seasonal activity pattern of water monitor, Varanus salvator in Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary, India. The study was conducted in an intensive study area of 17 sq.km selected after a pre sampling survey in the Sanctuary. The methodology involved to record the activity pattern of water monitor was monitoring of two permanent standard paths every three hours on diurnal basis. Sightings of water monitors were recorded while walking on the standard path. Behaviour of water monitor was divided into four categories such as basking, foraging, resting and non-foraging. Microhabitat of water monitor was recorded on each sighting. Ambient and substrate temperatures and ambient relative humidity were recorded along with diurnal activity pattern of water monitors. Results show a shift in diurnal activity pattern with season. The activity pattern of water monitor was unimodal in winter and uniform in summer. Basking was the major activity of water monitor in winter, whereas all the activities were evenly spread out in summer.The lizards used different microhabitats for different activities. Maximum lizards were recorded active at cooler substrate temperatures (29°C). The relation of ambient and substrate temperatures with activity was curvilinear. At low ambient temperature basking was prevalent. With increase in temperature other activities, such as foraging and resting were recorded. At high ambient temperature lizards selected cooler substrates. Ambient temperature and ambient relative humidity varied inversely. The activity was low at high levels of humidity It is concluded that behavioural thermoregulation plays a major role in water monitor’s activity.Item Health and Sexual Signals of Male Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) in Nagarahole National Park, Southern India(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 1999) Nath, Cheryl; Johnsingh, A.J.T.Male Asian elephants (Elephas maxim us) were studied at Nagarahole National Park, southern India from November 1998 to May 1999. Information was collected on at least 30 identified individuals for investigation of the possible use of musth and tusk length by males as signals of health and genetic fitness to female elephants. This study followed an earlier study by Watve and Sukumar (1997) which showed a significant negative correlation between tusk lengths and parasite loads in male elephants of the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, southern India. In this project, musth was studied in . addition to tusk length as a possible indicator of good health. It was hypothesised that musth and tusk length in male elephants would be related to better health and body condition and hence could potentially be considered as signals of better genetic quality, within the framework of Zahavi's theory of honest signaling (1975, 1977) and Hamilton and Zuk's theory of heritable true fitness (1982), respectively. The indicators of better health and body condition used were a subjectively scored body condition index (SCI) and a quantitative assessment of intestinal helminth parasite density (parasite load). Individuals were identified by a combination of several physical features, photographic records were obtained for height and tusk length measurement and information was collected on body condition, parasite loads, musth intensity and social interactions. The following interesting results were obtained: 1. Individuals exhibiting signs of early musth had significantly better body conditions and lower parasite loads than individuals exhibiting no signs of musth. 2. Longer tusks were not significantly correlated with better body condition, lower parasite loads or musth in this study.3. Dominance behaviours recorded in dyadic interactions among male elephants indicated that dominance was associated with musth, height of the animal and tusk length in a high percentage of interactions (100%, 89% and 78%, respectively).The significant association between early musth and better body condition as well as between early musth and reduced parasite loads indicates that male elephants may require better health in order to attain musth. Hence musth appears to be a potential honest signal of better than average health, in males which are able to attain this condition. This information may be used by female elephants in choosing mates. Social interactions among males corroborated this speculation by showing that musth and height in male elephants may be important determinants of dominance, which in tum may influence female choice and reproductive success. Limited samples of male-female interactions suggested that females discriminate between different males, and that male-male dominance interactions may influence female choice. However, small sample sizes limited the extent to which these findings could be extrapolated in this and other elephant populations.Item Environmental Influences on Space Utilisation and the Activity Budget of Captive Leopards (Panthera pardus fusca) in Five Zoos in Southern India(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 1999) Mallapur, Avanti; Chellam, Ravi; Qureshi, QamarA behavioural study was conducted on leopards in five zoos situated in Thiruvananthapuram, Chennai, Mysore and Bangalore between November 1998 and March 1999. Twenty six leopards were studied in five zoos of which sixteen were singly housed and ten were housed in groups. There were 16 males and 10 females. Only three of the 26 animals were captive born, 10 were captive reared and 13 were wild caught. Fourteen singly housed leopards were studied in on-exhibit and off exhibit enclosures on days with visitor presence and also on zoo holidays, two singly housed leopards were studied in the off-exhibit enclosures only. The group of ten at Bannerghatta Zoological Gardens, Bangalore was studied only in the on exhibit enclosure. Scan sampling method was used to record the behavioural patterns in leopards. The ethogram, which consists of all behaviour observed in five zoos lists 12 behavioural states and 29 behavioural events. The leopard enclosures were divided into imaginary blocks and the utilisation of these grids by the leopard was recorded alongwith behaviour at five-minute intervals. . Each leopard was studied for two days on-exhibit. two days off-exhibit and one zoo holiday. The leopard at Childrens' Park. Guindy was also studied for two excess visitor days during the Pongal festival. Information on each leopard was obtained from zoo records. No significant difference in behaviour was observed between males and females. and wild caught and captive-reared individuals. The behavioural repertoire of female leopards was significantly associated with their period of anoestrus. Stereotypic pacing was found to increase with enclosure size. Leopards housed in larger enclosures exhibited higher levels of activity and stereotypy behaviour. Smaller enclosures housed leopards that rested for longer proportions of time. Activity and resting behaviour peaks in the daily activity budget of the leopards were due to their crepuscular nature. The peaks in stereotypic behaviour in the daily activity budget were influenced by zookeepers' presence. Food-anticipatory behaviour was observed in all leopards before and during feed time. Individuals that were studied on-exhibit and off-exhibit exhibited higher levels of stereotypic behaviour off-exhibit and higher levels of activity behaviour on-exhibit. The presence of visitors also influences the behaviour repertoire of captive leopards. All singly housed leopards studied on days with visitor presence and zoo holidays exhibited higher levels of activity on zoo holidays and higher levels of resting behaviour on days with the presence of visitors. Six individuals were studied singly and then as pairs. The proportion of activity and resting behaviour exhibited when they were housed in pairs was higher and stereotypic behaviour, though not statistically significant, was lower than when they were singly housed. The utilisation of space differed between singly and group-housed leopards. Singly housed individuals utilised the "edge" and "back" zones of their enclosures more and the sructurally "enrich" zone less than group-housed leopards. Most of the leopards utilised the "edges" of their enclosure for stereotyping. the "back" zone for resting and the "rest" of the enclosure for activity behaviour. The structural features found within the enclosures that housed leopards were of two categories; sleeping platforms. trees and sheds that stimulated resting behaviour and logs. snags and tree trunks that stimulated activity behaviour. In enclosures that were structurally enriched with sleeping platforms, sheds or trees, leopards utilised the "enrich" zone of the enclosure for resting instead of the "back" zone. Enclosures having logs and snags. the "enrich" zones is utilised to exhibit activity behaviour. The utilisation of the structurally enriched zones of the enclosures was positively correlated with enclosure complexity. Leopards in structurally enriched enclosures exhibited higher levels of activity and lower levels of resting than the barren enclosures The factors that were found to influence the behavioural repertoire of captive leopards have been taken into consideration while recommending environmental enrichment techniques for the renovations of old enclosures and the construction of new ones.Item The Grey tit (Parus major caschmerensis) in Northern India: Behaviour and Ecology in the non-breeding season(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 1995) Quader, Suhel; Johnsingh, A.J.T.; Qureshi, QamarStudied the grey tit (Parus major caschmerensis) in Naina Devi Sanctuary. in the Shivalik hills of the Himachal Pradesh Himalaya. This is a subspecies of the well-studied great tit which ranges over a large part of Eurasia. The study had two main components: a. to investigate the non-breeding behaviour and ecology of this bird in India, and to interpret the findings with respect to what is known about the species from more northern areas (a comparative approach). b. to study the behaviour of individuals in the context of short· and long-tenn processes (in the winter, examples of these might be survival and reproduction. respectively), I collected data on colour-banded grey tits by following individuals, and recording behaviour using the point-sampling technique with one-minute intervals. Field work was carried out between December 1994 and April 1995. Throughout this study, I refer to the subspecies in India as grey tits, those studied in Europe and Japan as the great tit, and to the species as a whole as Parus major. In a comparison with what is known about great tits, the following points emerge: .Grey tits do not spend the winter in flocks of conspecifics; instead. they are either solitary or in pairs. This is associated with comparatively high winter temperatures, and may be the result of a low seasonality in resource abundance allowing for greater territorial site-fidelity. Sexual dimorphism in bill shape mirrors that found in a previous study on great tits in England, where males have deeper and shorter beaks than females, tend to forage more on beech seeds, and are more efficient at doing so than females. Grey tits show a sexual dimorphism in beak shape paralleling this, and males exhibit a strong tendency to forage more on Acacia catechu (from which largely pods are taken) than females, implying that similar ecomorphological processes can operate in populations widely separated in space. Grey tits use a wider variety of foraging substrates than their more northern counterparts, and correspondingly spend less time foraging on the ground. This is' associated with the absence of any congeners, although whether it is a case of competitive release is open to dispute. The Indian birds seem to spend more time feeding than what has been reported for English great tits. The greater time spent feeding is perhaps unexpected given the comparatively higher winter temperatures, and longer day-lengths in Naina Devi than in northern Europe. While a strict comparison of different studies may not be entirely valid, the solitary/pair living habit of grey tits may result in lower levels of aggression, and this may allow for more feeding time. The date of laying is related to the duration for which the male and female have been together (i.e pairing date). Birds which paired early bred early, though this is based on a limited sample of four pairs. If this relationship is causal, and if reproductive success decreases through the breeding season (as has been shown for many temperate species), it would imply a strong selection pressure for early pairing in the great tit. As breeding approached, males spent less time feeding than in the winter, and were involved in greater territorial activity such as singing. Female time budgets showed a similar, though nonsignificant trend over the season. Pooling sexes, the proportion of time spent tended towards a decrease as summer drew near. This decrease approached statistical significance.