Management of habitat, its connectivity and human-large carnivore conflict in Western Terai Arc Landscape (TAL)

Abstract

A wildlife corridor is an area of habitat that connects wildlife populations otherwise separated by human pressures such as roads, development or logging. Functionally corridors allows for the exchange of individuals between populations, reducing the negative effects of inbreeding and loss of genetic diversity that often occur in isolated populations. The Western Part of the Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) a region listed among the 200 globally important ecoregions for its rich assemblage of large mammals. Over time land modifications for agriculture and anthropogenic disturbances disrupted these connections. Despite this the TAK retains immense conservation value, sustaining two level I Tiger Conservation Units - Rajaji Corbett and Chitwan-Parsa-Valmiki- alongside several level II Units. Recent assessment estimate that about 20,800 sq km of tiger habitat remains on the Indian side of the TAL. The study area of this doctoral research spans the Western Terai Arc landscape and centres around Rajaji National Park encompassing connected forest divisions in Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh where it aims at (i) Evaluating corridor use by wildlife in Rajaji National Park and adjoining divisions (2) evaluating the extent and severity of human - large carnivores conflict in the Western TAL and (3) Evaluating existing management practices for large carnivore conservation. Towards evaluating the activity of wildlife and for assessing corridor functionality, systematic sign surveys were carried out in 2022–2023 to identify suitable sampling sites across all corridors, prior to camera-trapping. Transects were walked to record signs such as dung, pugmarks, hoof marks, and scrapes of large mammals. Further, a total of 87 camera traps were deployed in 2022 and 2025, yielding a total of 9,670 trap nights. Sign surveys revealed that leopards and elephants were the most frequently encountered species across both eastern and western corridors. Chillawali–Shiwalik showed extensive elephant signs, confirming its role as an elephant movement pathway. Camera traps recorded 17 species in the forest areas and nine in the corridors, with the highest species richness being recorded in Chillawali-Shiwalik, followed by Chilla-Motichur and Laltappar, and Teenpani. Chillawali-Shiwalik had the highest Relative Abundance Index (RAI) for chital (269.53), followed by Teenpani for wild pig (227.2) and sambar (123.31), whereas Chilla-Motichur and Laltappar exhibited lower RAIs for most species. In contrast, adjacent forest areas exhibited higher RAIs across all species, indicating a preference for less-disturbed habitats. Species exhibited distinct activity patterns between corridors and forest areas. Leopards were uniformly active throughout the day in the forest but showed slightly reduced daytime activity in corridors (Δ = 0.71). Elephants exhibited contrasting activity patterns, with a daytime activity peak in forest ranges and a nighttime peak in corridors (Δ = 0.48). These results highlight both the functionality and challenges of four key wildlife corridors in RNP in maintaining connectivity for species within fragmented habitats. Details of human-wildlife conflict incidents were collected from each of the Forest Divisions of the study area for 12 years (2012-2024). Of this, incident details of attacks on humans were available from 2018 to 2024, while livestock depredation incidents were available from 2003 to 2024. Of the collected data, large carnivore conflict incidents were compiled on the basis of the species of carnivore involved, and the incidents were categorised into attacks on humans and livestock depredation. Species-wise conflict points were extracted, and for each of the species, 5000 random points were then generated in QGIS to act as absence points in the study area. 65 incidents of attacks on humans were due to large carnivores – including tigers (n=29), leopards (n=19), and bears (n=17) (2018 to 2024), and 3,258 incidents of livestock depredation were attributed to large carnivores – including tigers (n=615) and leopards (n=2,635) (2003 to 2024). Human population densities were significantly different for locations of bear and tiger attacks on people and random points, whereas livestock population density was significantly different at locations of human-leopard conflict as compared to random locations. Similarly human population densities significantly varied between locations of livestock depredation by tigers & random non-conflict locations, while both human & livestock population densities were significantly different at locations of livestock depredation by leopards and random locations. Elevation gradient (p<0.01) in the study area was one of the major drivers of human conflict with bears and leopards on humans. Distance to linear infrastructure (p<0.01) and Human Footprint Index (p<0.05) majorly drive leopard attacks on people. Additionally, livestock and human population densities (p<0.05) influence bear and tiger attacks on people. Tiger attacks on humans were also driven by distances to linear infrastructure & Protected Area (p<0.01), and nightlight (p<0.01). Annual precipitation, terrain ruggedness & elevation, distances to linear infrastructure & water, human population density, and Human Footprint Index (p<0.001) are some of the factors that drive livestock depredation by leopards & tigers. The results of this study highlight the variations in trends and drivers of conflict with each large carnivore in the study area, with severe socio-economic and ecological consequences. The evaluation of management practices in the Western Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) was carried out using the Management Effectiveness Evaluation (MEE) framework developed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), that have been adapted for the Indian tiger reserves. This framework assesses management performance across six broad elements: context, planning, inputs, processes, outputs, and outcomes, and provides a structured mechanism to identify strengths and gaps in conservation practice. Data was collected from (a) working plans and Tiger Conservation Plans, (b) field records and secondary data, and (c) primary evaluation and scoring. The site-specific scores were aggregated to generate comparative rankings across divisions, and grouped under five major elements (context, planning, input, process, and output). Selected critical indicators were examined individually to highlight specific areas of weakness. Additional parameters relating to habitat degradation, encroachment, invasive species status, and habitat recovery were also scored qualitatively. Scores ranged narrowly from 66.41 (Kalsi) to 68.97 (Dehradun), with Lansdowne (68.75), Rajaji (67.19), and Shivalik (67.17) occupying intermediate positions, indicating moderate but consistent levels of management. Disaggregated analysis revealed variation across the five evaluation elements. Planning (68.52) and Inputs (68.75) received relatively higher scores, reflecting the availability of documented management plans, budget allocations, and staffing provisions (Figure 4.2). By contrast, Processes (65.17) and Outputs (62.92) scored lower, indicating weaknesses in implementation and outcome delivery. Indicator-level analysis pointed to specific areas of weakness, specifically indicators related to control of biotic pressures, stakeholder participation, and conflict mitigation consistently received low scores. These findings reveal that management effectiveness in the western TAL is functional but fragile, characterized by strong planning frameworks but weaker implementation and ecological outcomes. The Western Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) represents one of India’s most critical conservation frontiers where ecological connectivity, large mammal persistence, and human livelihoods intersect. This thesis generates crucial understanding of the interdependence between habitat connectivity, conflict mitigation, and management effectiveness. Fragmentation of corridors intensifies edge effects and human intrusion, which in turn elevates conflict frequency, further complicating management efforts. This study provides several actionable insights for strengthening conservation outcomes in the western TAL, including landscape integration, corridor restoration, conflict mitigation, participatory management, monitoring, and policy mainstreaming.