Khan, Niazul HassanPandav, Bivash2026-04-272025https://digitalrepository.wii.gov.in/handle/123456789/1437The Himalayan brown bear (Ursus arctos isabellinus) is among the rarest and most threatened large carnivores in South Asia, restricted to some of the most remote, rugged, and environmentally extreme high-altitude landscapes of the Indian Himalaya. Despite its status as a Schedule I species under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, and its ecological significance as a flagship carnivore, it remains one of the least studied mammals in India, owing to exceptionally low population densities, secretive behaviour, harsh climatic conditions, and the logistical challenges inherent to research in remote alpine and trans-Himalayan zones. Against this backdrop, the present thesis provides the first integrated, landscape-level scientific assessment of the species’ habitat ecology, dietary patterns, human-bear conflict dynamics, and management requirements across the Union Territory of Ladakh, with an intensive focus on the Kargil District. Synthesising extensive multi-year fieldwork, including more than 30,000 man-days of data collection, systematic occupancy surveys, remote sensing and species distribution modelling, molecular scat analysis, socioeconomic surveys, and spatial conflict mapping, this work fills critical knowledge gaps and establishes a comprehensive baseline essential for long-term conservation planning for the Himalayan brown bear in India. Ladakh, which constitutes the westernmost extension of the Tibetan Plateau, is characterised by cold-arid, high-elevation ecosystems where environmental conditions are severe and biological productivity is naturally low. The region exhibits dramatic elevational gradients, with valley floors starting around 2,500 m and peaks exceeding 7,700 m, generating a mosaic of ecological zones ranging from desert scrublands to alpine pastures. Human settlements are sparse but highly concentrated in narrow, fertile valleys sustained by glacial meltwater. Traditional agro-pastoralism is the dominant livelihood system, and extensive seasonal grazing across alpine rangelands creates strong spatial overlap between livestock, wild herbivores, and carnivores. In this socio-ecological setting, the Himalayan brown bear occupies some of the most productive pockets of western Ladakh, particularly in Kargil’s Suru, Drass, Shargole, and Zanskar valleys. These landscapes, however, are undergoing rapid change due to expanding road networks, military infrastructure, tourism growth, and energy installations, which are reshaping ecological processes and wildlife movement patterns. Within this complex backdrop, the thesis first examines, on an unprecedented landscape scale, the habitat ecology and spatial distribution of the Himalayan brown bear. Using MSTrIPES xvi digital data collection tools, the study systematically surveyed 10 × 10 km grid cells, which were further subdivided into 5 × 5 km sub-grid units, over a large geographic area and amassed 2,530 confirmed bear signs. Occupancy modelling pointed out that elevation, terrain ruggedness, distance to water, and the extent of alpine ranges are strong determinants of bear presence. Bears preferred rugged and moderately sloped areas between 3,300 m and 5,000 m, which also provided quick access to high-quality foraging grounds while also offering denning security. These findings are indicative of the habitat dependence of this species on very niche ecological conditions within an otherwise hostile landscape. Parallel habitat suitability modelling undertaken using MaxEnt showed that the core habitats of Himalayan brown bears in Ladakh are restricted to western districts and, more particularly, to the Suru-Drass-Zanskar belt. The highest suitability zones correspond to areas with productive alpine meadows, perennial water availability, and moderate temperatures, while marginal suitability is observed in the harsher eastern parts of Ladakh. Importantly, the modelling revealed that many such core habitats fall outside formal protected areas; hence, there is a need for community-based and landscape-level conservation measures. This thesis component was published in Scientific Reports (2025) with first detailed study on the habitat ecology of the Himalayan brown bear in the high-altitude region providing necessary information for future management and policy decisions. A second major component of the thesis relates to the dietary ecology of the species. Given the paucity of ecological studies in the Trans-Himalaya and the challenge of distinguishing carnivore scats in multi-carnivore landscapes, the study used non-invasive molecular techniques to confirm species identity prior to micro-histological diet analysis. Of 1,380 carnivore scats collected, 408 were identified as putative brown bear scats in the field, which was confirmed by DNA sequencing. This approach greatly enhances accuracy and secures the first molecularly verified dietary profile for the species in India. Results showed that, in the summer, Himalayan brown bears in Ladakh are predominantly herbivorous, with significant consumption of graminoids, forbs, roots, and a variety of alpine herbs, a feature of the short window of plant productivity during the brief growing season. With the approach of autumn and the senescence of natural vegetation, the proportion of animal matter increases in the diet, including marmots, small mammals, and carrion. Significantly, scats in areas with close proximity to settlements, army establishments, and tourist sites contained remains of livestock and anthropogenic garbage, notably plastic. Such dependence on human-derived food sources is a cause for concern, as this may lead to altered behaviour and increasingly conflictive situations. There was spatial variation in diets, where bears inhabiting high-quality rangelands predominantly depended on natural vegetation, whereas bears inhabiting human-dominated landscapes supplemented their diet with garbage, livestock, and stored items of food. These findings not only bring out the ecological constraints for the species but also indicate the importance of proper waste disposal and livestock management in mitigation of negative human-brown bear interactions.The third important element is the dynamics and drivers of human-brown bear conflict in Ladakh, particularly in Kargil, where the species' range overlaps considerably with human-use areas. Analysis of 22 years of official conflict records, from 2001 to 2022, indicates a sharp and sustained rise in conflict incidents: only two to four incidents were reported annually during the early 2000s, suggesting negligible interactions between humans and bears. However, incidents showed a gradual rise after 2008, increasing to 11-60 cases annually between 2010 and 2014, and crossing 90 cases annually after 2015. The number of incidents reached its peak of 112 in 2021. Livestock depredation has followed an equally disturbing upward trend, with negligible losses before 2005 but rising thereafter sharply to unprecedented levels in the years 2016-2018, when annual livestock losses reached between 447 and 737 animals. Cattle were the most frequently affected livestock species, followed by horses, goats, and sheep. Overall, estimated economic losses have ranged at over INR 9.3 lakh annually, affecting vulnerable agro-pastoral households disproportionately. Spatial analysis of incidents suggested a high clustering of hotspots, especially in Drass, Suru, and parts of Zanskar, with concentrated settlements, extensive livestock grazing, waste availability, and proximity to bear habitats. Most incidents occurred in summer and autumn months, coinciding with the peak activity season of bears and reduced availability of natural forage. Household surveys across multiple valleys revealed that while fear of bears is widespread, general attitudes toward the species are positive, with a large proportion of respondents supportive of its conservation. However, rising economic losses and property damage threaten to erode tolerance, and timely and focused interventions are critical for preserving coexistence. Guided by these ecological, dietary, and social insights, this thesis proposes an integrated set of evidence-based conservation and management recommendations tailored to the unique socio-ecological context of Ladakh. The conservation of the habitat needs to prioritise the core bear habitats in Drass, Suru, Rangdum, Shargole, and Zanskar, including their designation as Community Reserves, besides implementing effective ecological impact assessments for new infrastructure projects. Degraded alpine pastures and riparian zones need restoration. Connectivity needs to be maintained through landscape-level planning. Management of food resources should include strict protocols for carcass disposal, installation of bear-proof waste bins, and improved storage facilities for crops and fodder to reduce attractants. Mitigation of conflicts needs to include predator-proof corrals, solar deterrent systems, early-warning networks, rapid response teams, and streamlined compensation schemes that incentivise preventive measures. Besides all the above, there is a very high potential for community-based ecotourism to serve as an alternative livelihood and conservation incentive based on successful models from other Himalayan regions. Ultimately, the development of collaborative governance among wildlife authorities, local communities, panchayats, pastoral groups, and tourism stakeholders must strike a balance between the demands of development and ecological sustainability. Overall, the present thesis undertakes the most comprehensive and integrated ecological assessment of the Himalayan brown bear in India and provides a science-based platform for conserving this threatened species in one of the world’s most challenging and changing high-altitude landscape.enHimalayan brown bearUrsus arctos isabellinusTrans-HimalayaHUMANITIES and RELIGION::History and philosophy subjects::Ethnology::Human ecologyLadakhJammu and KashmirStatus and distributionHuman brown bear interactionsfood habitsThesis