PhD Theses (WII)
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Item Study of Ecosystem Services Provided by Mountain Watersheds(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2026) Debnath, Anindita; Talukdar, GautamEcosystem service (ES) mapping has emerged as a robust scientific approach to understanding landscape dynamics, conserving biodiversity, and sustaining nature’s contributions to people amid land-use/land-cover change and accelerating climate change. In ecologically fragile mountain systems such as the Himalaya, ecosystem services are highly sensitive yet rarely quantified for decision making. The Askot landscape, situated in the western Himalayan landscape in Pithoragarh district of Uttarakhand, covers approx. 4496.49 sq.km. Despite providing vital regulating, provisioning, and supporting services, this region has received limited integrated assessment. Addressing this gap, the present study examined long-term land-use–land-cover (LULC) dynamics, associated carbon sequestration trends, and future climate vulnerability to support evidence-based decision making. To achieve this, this study pursued three objectives: (i) to analyse spatial and temporal LULC changes, (ii) to quantify trends in above-ground carbon storage across forest and vegetation types, and (iii) to identify climatically vulnerable areas under future climate scenarios.The results reveal that nearly 10% of the Askot landscape experienced LULC change over the study period, with the most pronounced transformations occurring between 2011 and 2020, indicating an acceleration of recent landscape dynamics. Forests occupy only ~18% of the total landscape, yet they underpin a substantial share of ecosystem services. Dense forest area declined from 391.7 sq.km (1990) to 369.4 sq.km (2020), while moderate dense forest showed a sharper reduction (259.3 to 227.9 sq.km), accompanied by a marked increase in open forest (155.9 to 206.9 sq.km). This pattern reflects widespread forest degradation rather than abrupt deforestation. Scrub ecosystems also declined, while landslides more than doubled (7.45 to 15.8 sq.km), signalling growing geomorphic instability. High-elevation systems exhibited strong climate sensitivity, with alpine meadows shrinking (842.2 to 790.4 sq.km) and snow cover declining by over 100 sq.km, alongside a substantial expansion of the Moraine class (473.3 to 714.5 sq.km), indicating snowline instability and water stress, affecting another vital ES.Vegetation-type analysis further confirms degradation across major forest types. Oak-dominated systems (Quercus leucotrichophora (Banj Oak), Quercus semecarpifolia (Kharsu Oak), Quercus floribunda (Moru Oak), Betula-Abies (Birch–Fir), Deodar, Pine, and Mixed broadleaf forests all showed declines in dense and moderate canopy classes with a concurrent rise in open forest cover. Above-carbon carbon storage and sequestration show consistent declines across oak-dominated forests (Banj, Kharsu, Moru), Birch–Fir, Deodar, Pine, and mixed broadleaf systems, primarily through transitions from dense and moderate canopy classes to open forest. These structural changes directly influenced carbon dynamics. In 1990, the total AGC was estimated at 67,529.41 MgC, which declined to 66,597.79 MgC by 2020. Projections for 2050 indicate a further reduction in AGC to 66,062.30 MgC, corresponding to an additional loss of 535.49 MgC between 2020 and 2050. Total above-ground carbon stock declined from 67,529.41 MgC in 1990 to 66,062.30 MgC by 2050, representing a cumulative loss of 1,467.11 MgC over six decades. Meadows and scrub ecosystems showed the steepest proportional carbon losses, while forest carbon decline was driven largely by canopy thinning rather than loss of forest area. The relatively lower projected future carbon loss reflects the slow-changing nature of forest types, even as degradation continues.Oak forests emerge as the primary climate mitigation asset in the Askot landscape, contributing ~61% of total above-ground carbon (AGC) by 2050 despite occupying less than 10% of the total area. When combined, all forest classes (oak, temperate, and mixed forests) account for 18% of total area and contributing to approximately 85% of total AGC, clearly establishing forests as the dominant carbon pool within the watershed. This concentration of carbon within a limited forested area highlights the disproportionate importance of forests. Even marginal losses in forest cover translate into substantial carbon emissions; for instance, a 0.26% reduction in oak forest area corresponds to an estimated loss of ~105 MgC.The scope of present study was to identify climatically vulnerable ecosystems in the Askot landscape by integrating Climate-Ecological Niche Factor Analysis (CENFA). To perform this analysis, two Shared-Socioeconomic Pathways (SSP) were considered, SSP245 (Middle of the road) and SSP585 (Worst-case scenario) for mid-century (2041-2060) and end-of century (2081-2100). Climate vulnerability assessment using CENFA highlights extensive areas of medium to high vulnerability, particularly under SSP585. High-vulnerability zones increase from 1266.7 sq.km (SSP245) to 1535.2 sq.km (SSP585) in the near future, and further expand to 1762.6 sq.km by end-century, disproportionately affecting alpine, sub-alpine, and degraded forest regions. These areas spatially correlated with zones of observed LULC change and carbon decline, underscoring climate–LULC risks. Askot landscape is undergoing progressive ecological degradation driven by forest structural decline, high-elevation climate stress, and increasing disturbance. Integrating LULC dynamics, carbon assessment, and CENFA this research can support ecosystem-based adaptation leading to climate-adaptive land-use planning.Item Ecological and phylogenetic aspects of an Avian aerial Insectivore: The Barn Swallow in the Himalaya(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2026) Kaur, AmarjeetThis thesis is a first to document the ecology of a common and widespread species yet is declining in many parts of its range, the Barn Swallow (Hirundo rustica). The species breeds in the Northern Hemisphere and undertake long-distance migratory movements every year to its non-breeding grounds in Southern Hemisphere. Owing to its close association with humans – the nature of nest building in human artefacts, the Barn Swallow is a well-known human commensal species globally. Due to its widespread distribution, populations show variations in their morphological as well as genetic traits, and globally six subspecies of H. rustica are recognized, of which two are sedentary or non-migratory. Though common, this aerial insectivore is experiencing severe population declines in Canada, North America and parts of Europe with global population trend status is declining. The widespread declines in Barn Swallow populations have alarmed the scientists across the world with the urgent need for ecological monitoring and identification of region-specific drivers of decline. In India, three out of six subspecies of Barn Swallow are reported to occur - two subspecies, H. r. rustica and H. r. gutturalis breed in Himalaya while the third H. r. tytleri is a winter visitor in Northeast India. Given the documented alarming declines across regions, population trends of Barn Swallows in India remain unknown. This formed the basis of this thesis wherein the knowledge gaps on species are addressed with three major components. First, given the absence of any population trend, eBird data - citizen-science observations was utilised to examine the species’ breeding and non-breeding distribution across the Indian subcontinent. Second, field surveys were conducted across the Himalayan region to document the breeding sites of Barn Swallows with main focus of documenting breeding ecology in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Third, Barn Swallow populations across the Himalayan range were examined to assess morphological and genetic variations. Finally, the thesis is concluded by synthesizing ecological and evolutionary findings, while also highlighting the strong cultural relationship between Barn Swallows and the people of the Himalaya. The first objective focuses on eBird locations to document the occurrence of Barn Swallows in the Indian subcontinent. eBird platform is valuable particularly in parts of the world where long-term species monitoring programs are limited and access to ecological data remains constrained. eBird data was utilized with the objective of investigating the occurrence and seasonal movements of the Barn Swallow in the Indian Subcontinent. With five years of data (2019 – 2023), following eBird best practice criteria, checklists were filtered and considered for the analyses. Barn Swallows presence data was compiled for the Indian subcontinent region, divided into equal-area icosahedron hex grids (25 km²). For each cell, daily presence was calculated and then weighted daily mean location was calculated using the central longitude and latitude of each cell. A generalized additive model (GAM) was applied on the weighted mean daily locations for each year to model latitude and longitude separately as functions of time (Julian day). Combining the predicted latitude and longitude values from the fitted GAM, daily population-level centroids were generated. From the GAM predicted occurrence centroids, migration timing, migration speed and migration distance was calculated, and seasonal and annual variations were compared using linear regression and linear mixed models.Across five years, Barn Swallows bred at a mean latitude of 28.18°N and wintered around 16.19°N, with marked interannual variation in both breeding extent and migration timing. Spring migration began on average in late March and was faster than autumn migration (23.7 vs. 20.1 km/day), although this difference was marginal. Migration distances were similar between seasons (≈1550 km in spring; ≈1670 km in autumn). Migration timing influenced latitudinal positions, with later spring departures associated with more northerly locations and later autumn departures with more southerly positions. Weak northward shifts in migration routes and breeding latitudes were observed over time, indicating subtle directional changes in the migratory system. This eBird analysis provides the first broad-scale synthesis of Barn Swallow migration within the Indian subcontinent, revealing that Himalayan-breeding populations consistently occupy higher latitudes during breeding and overwinter predominantly in southern India, underscoring India’s central role in Asian migratory connectivity. Migration phenology showed spring departure in late March and residence at breeding sites until late July, with faster and slightly shorter spring migration compared to autumn, consistent with optimal migration theory and monsoon-driven resource tracking. Interannual variation in timing, speed, and distance likely reflects environmental variability along migratory routes. Weak but consistent northward shifts in breeding and migratory latitudes suggest early climate-driven range adjustments that may be especially consequential in the rapidly changing Himalayan landscape. Despite limitations of citizen science data, these findings establish a critical baseline for understanding the migration ecology of Himalayan Barn Swallows and highlight the need for integrated tracking and ringing studies to resolve population-specific routes, identify key non-breeding habitats, and assess future climate and land-use impacts.The second objective focuses on documenting breeding distribution and nesting ecology of Barn Swallows in the Indian Himalayan Region. Systematic surveys across the Himalayan range from west to east axis between 2019 and 2023 (excluding two years- 2020 and 2021 of COVID-19 pandemic) were carried out. On locating a nest, nest-site characteristics and nest attributes were recorded. Systematic nest monitoring was conducted across four sites in Uttarakhand to quantify breeding parameters and nest success of Barn Swallows, with nests monitored every 5–7 days from initiation to outcome. Breeding metrics including clutch size, brood size, fledgling number, and nesting duration were estimated, and nest success was assessed using both apparent success and Mayfield nest survival estimates to account for unequal exposure times. Spatial and temporal variation in nest success was analysed using binomial generalized linear models. To examine nestling diet and prey selection, faecal samples were collected from active nests and prey remains were identified to insect order using microscopy, while aerial insect availability was quantified through sweep-net sampling along foraging transects at rural and urban sites. Diet composition and prey availability were compared across settlement types using frequency of occurrence, PERMANOVA, and NMDS based on Jaccard dissimilarity, allowing assessment of dietary differences between urban and rural habitats and evaluation of prey use relative to local insect communities. Across the Indian Himalaya, 1,450 Barn Swallow nests were recorded between an elevation belt of 489 and 2,317 m, with a mean nesting elevation of ~1,500 m and high concentration within the mid-elevational range (1,000–2,000 m). Nesting records spanned 24.4–34.2°N and were unevenly distributed among states, with Uttarakhand contributing the majority of nests and exhibiting the broadest elevational range. Across the region, over 70–90% of nests were located inside buildings, most commonly on walls, bulb holders, and other artificial supports, with commercial structures such as shops dominating in most states. In Uttarakhand, breeding activity extended from late February to late June, with mean nest initiation around day 102 of the year and clear advancement in nest initiation, egg-laying, and fledging dates across years, particularly in 2023. Mean clutch size was 3.88 eggs, mean brood size 3.25 chicks, and successful nests fledged an average of 2.63 young, though reproductive output varied across sites. Apparent nest success was 62.2%, while Mayfield estimates indicated higher overall nest survival (mean 76.5%), reflecting differences in exposure time and daily survival rates among sites and years. Nest success varied significantly among regions but not among years, with Nainital and Bageshwar showing consistently higher success than Kempty. Diet analysis of 240 nestling faecal samples identified six insect orders, dominated by Coleoptera (96.7%) and Hymenoptera (75%), with significant differences in prey composition between rural and urban settlements and weaker spatial structuring within settlement types. Aerial insect sampling revealed distinct insect communities between rural and urban habitats, yet nestling diets differed significantly from local prey availability at both settlement and site levels, indicating selective foraging rather than passive prey use. This objective’s findings provide the first comprehensive assessment of Barn Swallow breeding ecology across the Indian Himalaya, demonstrating that the species is a widespread and regular breeder across a broad elevational range, with nesting concentrated at mid-elevations where it is likely that climatic conditions and prey availability are most favourable. The strong association with human-made structures - particularly indoor nesting in shops and traditional buildings - highlights the species’ long-standing commensal relationship with people in the region and complete dependence on human structures for nesting in the region. Spatial variation in breeding distribution and reproductive success appears to be driven by regional climate, monsoon dynamics, and local habitat quality, while the observed advancement in breeding phenology between 2019 and 2023 is consistent with climate-driven shifts documented in migratory birds globally. Dietary analyses revealed selective foraging, with nestlings fed predominantly large-bodied insects, especially Coleoptera and Hymenoptera, and clear differences between rural and urban settlements reflecting habitat-specific prey availability. The mismatch between available insects and prey consumed indicates active prey selection rather than opportunistic feeding, though reliance on faecal analysis may underrepresent soft-bodied taxa. Collectively, these findings underscore the vulnerability of Himalayan Barn Swallow populations to rapid changes in architecture, land use, and insect communities. The ongoing replacement of traditional buildings with sealed modern structures, combined with widespread declines in aerial insects, may create ecological traps where nesting opportunities persist but food resources do not. Conservation efforts in the Himalaya should therefore integrate nest-friendly architectural practices, protection of insect-rich foraging habitats, and long-term monitoring to safeguard this culturally valued and ecologically important aerial insectivore in a rapidly transforming mountain landscape. The third objective of the thesis is aimed to fill the gap in identity and origin of Barn Swallow populations breeding in the Indian Himalayan region. Despite well-documented morphometric variation among Barn Swallow subspecies, the identity, breeding distribution, and evolutionary history of populations breeding in the Indian Himalayan region remain poorly understood. In particular, it is unknown when Barn Swallows colonized the Himalaya, how Pleistocene glacial events shaped their present-day distribution, and how or whether geographically isolated populations - such as the sedentary population in Manipur - diverged from the largely migratory Himalayan populations. Addressing this gap, the third objective of this study investigates the phylogeography of Barn Swallow populations breeding in the Indian Himalaya within a global context, integrating Indian populations with well-studied breeding populations worldwide to elucidate their evolutionary relationships, historical connectivity, and region-specific adaptations. For this objective, adult Barn Swallows were captured at breeding sites across Kashmir, Uttarakhand, North Bengal, and Manipur using mist-nets and customized butterfly nets, and standard morphometric measurements were recorded. Birds were banded, and small blood samples were collected from adults for genetic analysis. Morphometric variation among regions was examined using principal component analysis, one-way ANOVA, and post-hoc tests, with wing length used as a proxy for body size and additional regression analyses conducted to assess latitudinal trends; sexually dimorphic tail streamers were analysed separately by sex. For phylogeographic analysis, mitochondrial Cytochrome b and ND2 gene sequences were generated from blood samples, following DNA extraction using standard kits and PCR amplification with published primers. Sequences were edited, aligned, and analysed alongside global Barn Swallow subspecies sequences retrieved from GenBank. Genetic diversity was estimated, phylogenetic relationships were reconstructed using Bayesian inference in BEAST with appropriate substitution models and outgroup rooting, and haplotype relationships were visualized using median-joining networks, with genetic distances calculated under the best-fitting evolutionary model. Barn Swallow populations across the Indian breeding range showed pronounced variation in plumage, morphology, and genetic structure. Plumage colouration varied geographically, with buff-bellied birds with broken or broad breast bands dominating Uttarakhand and North Bengal, mixed white to rufous-bellied individuals with complete breast bands in Kashmir, and predominantly rufous to chestnut-orange birds with broken or complete breast bands in Manipur. Morphometric analyses of 158 adults revealed clear regional structuring, with principal component analysis separating populations primarily along a body size axis (PC1) and a bill morphology axis (PC2), together explaining 58.6% of total variance. Birds from the Srinagar Valley were significantly larger, exhibiting the greatest wing lengths, while individuals from the Imphal Valley were smallest; Himalayan populations (Uttarakhand and North Bengal) were intermediate but showed greater variability in bill traits. Sexually selected outer tail length was consistently longer in males than females, with both male and female Kashmir birds exhibiting significantly longer streamers than those from other regions. Across all populations, wing length, tarsus length, body mass, and head length increased significantly with latitude, indicating strong latitudinal clines in body size.Phylogeographic analyses based on mitochondrial Cyt b and ND2 genes revealed two genetically distinct Barn Swallow lineages within India. All samples from Kashmir, Uttarakhand, and North Bengal clustered into a well-supported and genetically distinct Himalayan clade, whereas samples from Manipur, along with two individuals from Uttarakhand, grouped with the East Asian subspecies Hirundo rustica gutturalis. Both Bayesian phylogenetic reconstruction and haplotype network analyses consistently supported this deep genetic separation, indicating that Himalayan Barn Swallow populations represent a distinct evolutionary lineage, clearly differentiated from other recognized subspecies across the species’ global range.This study demonstrates strong geographic structuring in morphology and genetics of Barn Swallows across the Indian Himalayan region, shaped by latitude, ecology, and historical biogeography. Birds breeding at higher latitudes in Kashmir were consistently larger, with longer wings and exaggerated male tail streamers, conforming to well-established latitudinal size clines and suggesting adaptation to colder climates, migratory demands, or flight efficiency. Central Himalayan populations (Uttarakhand and North Bengal) showed intermediate morphology with greater trait variability, indicating partial phenotypic cohesion along the Himalayan axis, potentially constrained by geographic barriers such as the Pir Panjal range. In contrast, the newly documented resident breeding population in Manipur exhibited distinct plumage and smaller body size, with morphometric traits that do not align cleanly with described subspecies, instead appearing intermediate between H. r. tytleri and H. r. erythrogaster. This challenges traditional subspecies assignments in South and Southeast Asia and highlights unresolved complexity in the region’s biogeographic history. Phylogeographic analyses revealed two well-defined mitochondrial lineages within India: a distinct Himalayan clade encompassing Kashmir, Uttarakhand, and North Bengal, and an eastern lineage aligned with H. r. gutturalis that includes all Manipur samples and a small subset from Uttarakhand, suggesting secondary contact or admixture. The concordance between morphometric differentiation and genetic structure indicates that geographic isolation, local adaptation, and sexual selection may jointly reinforce divergence despite the species’ high dispersal ability. The Manipur population may have arisen through secondary colonization and introgression or through a shift from migratory to sedentary breeding within a former wintering range, underscoring the Barn Swallow’s capacity for rapid evolutionary and behavioural change. While these patterns point to the Himalaya as an important axis of divergence, the Himalayan lineage is best viewed as an incipient evolutionary or management unit rather than a fully differentiated subspecies, emphasizing the need for genome-wide data and migratory tracking to resolve evolutionary status and inform conservation in this climatically sensitive region. Thie last chapter discusses on Barn Swallows as one of the world’s most successful avian commensals, whose close association with humans emerged relatively recently alongside permanent settlements during the Holocene. Across cultures, their reliance on human-made structures for nesting has fostered deep symbolic, religious, and emotional connections, particularly in breeding regions. In the Indian Himalaya, where Barn Swallows are summer breeders nesting predominantly inside houses and shops between 1000–2000 m elevation, these cultural relationships had not previously been documented. By combining large-scale surveys with ethnographic-style interviews, this study demonstrates that Barn Swallows occupy a unique socio-ecological niche in the Himalaya, where their breeding ecology is inseparable from human tolerance, daily routines, and traditional belief systems.Survey results across the Himalayan region revealed overwhelmingly positive perceptions of Barn Swallows, reflected in vernacular names that associate the species with gods, prosperity, and domestic well-being. In Uttarakhand, residents reported nesting histories extending back several decades to over a century, strong nest-site fidelity, and widespread nest protection practices, including deliberate avoidance of disturbance. Despite threats such as competition with House Sparrows, nestling mortality from ceiling fans, and predation by domestic animals, human tolerance remained high. The COVID-19 lockdown provided a natural experiment demonstrating the strength of this relationship: even when shops were closed, many owners actively ensured access for swallows by modifying shutters or maintaining openings, allowing most nests to persist. These findings highlight cultural values as an unrecognized yet critical buffer supporting Barn Swallow breeding success in human-dominated Himalayan landscapes.However, the findings of the chapter also underscore emerging vulnerabilities. Rapid urbanisation, architectural modernisation, tourism pressure, and changing hygiene norms threaten the availability of traditional nest sites and may erode long-standing cultural tolerance. While positive perceptions remain deeply rooted across much of the Himalaya, early signs of shifting attitudes mirror trends already documented in parts of East Asia, where modernization has led to nest exclusion. Given the Barn Swallow’s near-total dependence on human structures, the persistence of culturally mediated coexistence may be as important as ecological factors for its future in the region. This chapter therefore emphasizes that conserving Barn Swallows in the Himalaya requires not only habitat and insect prey management, but also the recognition, preservation, and integration of traditional cultural values into conservation and development planning. Overall, my thesis provides the first integrated ecological, evolutionary, and socio-cultural assessment of Barn Swallows in the Indian Himalayan region, revealing the Himalaya as a key axis of divergence, connectivity, and human–wildlife coexistence within the species’ Asian range. By combining citizen-science–derived migration analyses, extensive field-based breeding ecology, detailed dietary and reproductive assessments, phylogeographic and morphometric analyses, and cultural perspectives, the study demonstrates that Himalayan Barn Swallow populations are shaped jointly by climatic gradients, historical biogeography, selective pressures linked to migration and reproduction, and an unusually strong dependence on human tolerance. The identification of a distinct Himalayan genetic lineage, the reporting of a resident breeding population in Manipur, evidence for climate-linked phenological shifts, and the documentation of culturally mediated nest persistence together underscore the species’ capacity for rapid ecological and behavioural adaptation, but also its vulnerability to accelerating environmental change. Collectively, these findings establish a critical baseline for monitoring population trajectories in India, challenge simplified subspecies boundaries in Asia, and highlight that effective conservation of this declining aerial insectivore in the Himalaya will require integrative approaches that link evolutionary history, migration ecology, insect prey documentation, urban architecture-sensitive planning, and the preservation of traditional human values that have long enabled coexistence of Barn Swallows with humans in this complex mountain landscape of the Himalaya.Item Species diversity and molecular study of bees (Bombus and Xylocopa) in Dehradun District, Uttarakhand, India(wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2025) Abha PurohitPollinators are fundamental to the functioning of terrestrial ecosystems, as they facilitate the reproduction of a vast majority of flowering plants and thereby sustain biodiversity and ecological stability. Globally, an estimated 87.5% of flowering plants depend onanimal pollinators for successful reproduction (Ollerton et.al. 2011). In addition to their ecological role, pollinators, particularly bees, are indispensable for global agriculture. Approximately 75% of the world’s leading food crops rely on pollination to enhance both yield and quality (Klein et.al. 2007). Agricultural commodities such as fruits, vegetables, nuts, oilseeds, and spices are especially dependent on bee-mediated pollination. Beyond agricultural productivity, pollinators provide critical services that directly influence human nutrition. By increasing the diversity, availability, and quality of nutrient-rich foods, they indirectly contribute to balanced diets enriched with vitamins, antioxidants, and essential micronutrients (Eilers et.al.2011). Thus, pollinators not only underpin biodiversity but also strengthen food security and human well-being, highlighting their ecological, agricultural, and nutritional significance. 2. Research objectives The study aims to conduct a systematic survey of Bombus (bumblebees) and Xylocopa (carpenter bees) in the Dehradun district, focusing on their taxonomy, ecology, and seasonal distribution in different habitat zones. It also seeks for identification and characterization of their habitats, with emphasis on the availability of food plants that sustain high species diversity. Molecular tools, including DNA barcoding, was applied for accurate identification of collected specimens. Additionally, the research evaluated the impact of anthropogenic pressures and other environmental threats on the survival and diversity of these pollinator groups in the study area.Item Aspects and determinants of human-carnivore conflict in tiger corridors of Terai, Western Circle, Uttarakhand(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2024) Ranjan, Vivek; Badola, Ruchi; Dhakate, Parag MadhukarHuman-wildlife interaction with negative consequences, commonly termed Human- Wildlife Conflict (HWC), is a global conservation challenge. Understanding the cause-effect relationship resulting in HWC is essential to resolve and mitigate the conflict and promote human-wildlife coexistence. However, the increasing human population and rapidly changing demography severely affect the contiguity of forested landscapes and habitats, becoming a major challenge for conserving wide-ranging large mammals. The conservation and protection of wildlife corridors are vital for the survival of wide-ranging large mammals in the landscape. The Terai landscape, located in the foothills of the Himalayas and proximate plains of the Indian Himalayan Region, is one of the most significant and distinct transboundary landscapes worldwide. In recent decades, the Terai region has recorded a rapid increase in human population and industry growth due to its conducive topography for industrial development in the hilly state of Uttarakhand. The region is also home to diverse wildlife, and increased conservation efforts and protection have yielded positive results, with an increased population of endangered wildlife species like tigers in the last few years. With increasing population and shrinking wildlife habitat, human and wildlife's peaceful and sustainable coexistence is distressed, leading to an increased probability of negative human wildlife interaction. The study aims to assess the aspects and determinants of Human-Large Carnivore Conflict (HLCC) in the wildlife corridors and their adjoining habitats in the eastern terai landscape of Uttarakhand state of India. The large carnivores considered for the purpose of this study are tiger and leopard only, which are common in the landscape of the study area. The study has three objectives: to assess the nature and extent of human-wildlife conflict due to large carnivores, the habitat structure and composition of the wildlife corridors and the diet preferences and consumption patterns of large carnivores in the corridor habitat. The thesis has been divided into six chapters, where the first two chapters are a general introduction and literature review, and the following four chapters talk about socio-ecological factors, habitat quality of corridor habitats, implications of habitat changes on HLCC, and diet profile of two sympatric large carnivores of the study area, i.e. tiger and leopard. The study area is part of Terai Arc Landscape (TAL), a Tiger Conservation Landscape (TCL_Id-44) of global importance with the potential for increasing the wild tiger population. The study was conducted in the delineated wildlife corridors for large mammals in the terai landscape of Uttarakhand state of India. The study focuses on the critical wildlife corridor in high tiger density and transboundary areas, providing crucial connectivity of habitats and wildlife populations. The study area is divided into two study blocks for the spatial convenience of the study: Block 1 comprises the Kosi Corridor, and Block 2 comprises theKilpura-Khatima-Surai (KKS) and Boom-Brahmadey (BB) corridor and their adjoining forests. Kosi corridor connects Corbett Tiger Reserve to Pawalgarh Conservation Reserve in Ramnagar forest division. The KKS and BB corridors in Block 2 have contiguous and interconnected habitats adjoining Nandhaur Wildlife Sanctuary in the Haldwani Forest Division of Uttarakhand, connecting to Pilibhit Tiger Reserve and Sukhlaphanta National Park through forest of Nepal. The study area is rich in faunal diversity and home to a few important large mammals, such as the Tiger, Leopard and the Asian elephant. In order to understand the nature and extent of HLCC in the landscape, it was essential to understand the socio-economic conditions and perceptions of the communities. We conducted random household (HH) semi-structured questionnaire surveys and discussions in the villages located in the corridors. The information on HWC compensation records was also collected from the Uttarakhand Forest department to analyze the patterns of conflict incidences. The results show that livestock grazing, fuelwood, and fodder collection from the forest are common and prevalent practices. About 90% of the households have LPG connections at home, yet most HH members still visit forests for collection. The education level among the respondents is low, with maximum HHs having an annual income of less than one lakh. The major occupation as the primary source of income in the study area is casual labour work, and most of the HHs have land holdings of less than an acre. The incidences of HLCC mainly occurred inside the forest areas and later half of the daytime, i.e., from noon to evening. The season of incidence and condition of the body of the depredated livestock show significant association with the place of incidence. The seasonality pattern of HLCC incidences shows nan incidents during monsoon in study block 1, whereas in block 2, it is in winter. The trend of incidences over the last 13 years in study block 1 shows a peak in tiger and leopard cases during July and August and forecasts an increase in cases over upcoming years. The annual trend of HLCC in the two study blocks is significantly different. The nature of HLCC in the study area is both tangible, which can be visually observed and intangible, which has imbibed effects with direct and indirect impacts. The tangible nature of large carnivore conflict is the direct impacts in the form of human casualty and livestock depredation. The intangible nature of the conflict with indirect impacts are psychological— fear of large carnivores and sense of insecurity, social — loss of livelihood and family security. The aspects of HLCC are socio-ecological, with both the social factors of communities residing around the forest and the ecological processes influencing the HWI. In rapidly transforming human-dominated landscapes, anthropogenic activities and disturbances significantly impact the ecological processes and landscape characteristics. The habitat quality was assessed using the nested quadrat method for vegetation and camera trapping for large carnivore population estimation and prey availability. The camera trapping was done using the capture-recapture method in 2 sq. Km sampling grids. The results show maximum tree diversity in the BB corridor, with good to fair Sal regeneration in all three corridors. However, most of the tree species show poor to no regeneration. Sixty-one species of trees were recorded from the three corridor areas sampled. As an invasive plant species, Lantana camara is more prevalent and extensive in study block 1 and Ageratina adenophara in block 2. The grassland habitat is shrinking, and less in all three corridor habitats.Anthropogenic disturbance is high in block 2 in comparison to block 1, while tree cutting and lopping are the most prevalent anthropogenic disturbance signs observed in all three corridors at equivalent levels. The medium-sized prey is the most abundant prey base in both the study blocks, with maximum relative abundance of Spotted deer. However, the relative abundance of Sambar deer is higher in the bhabar topography area of corridors and maximum in large sized prey. The study block | has 16 adult tigers and 22 leopards, while block 2 has 31 adult tigers and 40 leopards. The wildlife habitats of the three corridor areas studied have good tree diversity and complexity. However, the regeneration of tree species is poor for most species. The shrub and herb cover are also low for most areas in all three corridors, affecting the lower structure of forest habitats. The extensive growth of weed species like Lantana camara and Ageratina adenophora also affects understory species' composition, structure, and tree regeneration. The poor regeneration and deteriorated lower strata vegetation with sparse undergrowth are unfavourable conditions for breeding large carnivores, which requires dense patches for hiding their offspring. The lack of such patches and high human disturbance forces them out of the forest to use sugarcane farm fields to raise and hide their young ones, as has been observed in many instances in the Terai-Bhabar landscape. Using human-modified landscapes by large carnivores for their life cycle stages is unsuitable for human-wildlife coexistence and increases the vulnerability of negative HWI. ASS Bind Expert in CC EE TTT The implications of habitat transformations on HLCC were assessed by identifying spatial conflict hotspots based on compensation records of the last 14 years and the magnitude of incidents related to large carnivores in different locations. The Land Use Land Cover (LULC) and Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) change over twenty years were assessed. The Nighttime Light (NTL), an indicator of human growth and activity centres, was also assessed for a decadal change. The impact of changes in these habitat attributes on hotspots was assessed using the Generalized Linear Model. The model shows that the impact of vegetation health change and human activity or disturbances have a significant effect on conflict hotspots. The very high-risk zones are also located in the delineated corridors near bottleneck areas. The study has highlighted that the implications of habitat changes are significant for HLCC. The implications of habitat changes vary with the landscape and regional attributes, as observed in our study at two sites with varied underlying factors other than habitats. In the present conservation paradigm of large carnivores, it is essential to understand the feeding habits and prey-predator dynamics outside protected areas. Our study fills this gap in our understanding of the dietary habits of sympatric large carnivore species outside protected areas (PAs) in the terai landscape of India. It focuses on the feeding ecology of tigers and leopards in wildlife corridor habitats outside PAs. Our results show a significant dependence of tigers and leopards on medium-sized prey, i.e., Wild boars and spotted deer. It also shows a 93% overlap between tiger and leopard diets in the study area. However, it is crucial to augment wild prey availability in the wildlife corridor habitats, where grazing pressure is high. The problem of stray cattle has further escalated the issue of livestock depredation by large carnivores. Conservation strategists must consider the feeding habits of the predators and how these are changing due to the induced effects of anthropogenic activities.Item Distribution of major alien invasive plants and impact assessment of Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) K & R. in Kailash Sacred Landscape, Uttarakhand(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2022) Chaudhary, Alka; Adhikari, B.S.; Rawat, G.S.The study was conducted to assess the spread, distribution, impact of invasion in Indian part of Kailash Sacred Landscape (KSL) characterized by interspersion of human habitations, extensive forest managed by the State Forest Department and local community institutions (Van Panchayat). The objectives of the study were (i) To model spatial distribution of selected plant invasive species using distribution modeling technique. (2) To assess the impacts of IAPs on native flora and relationship with habitat parameters (3) To analyze people's perception towards the spread of IAPs in KSL India landscape (4) Experimental trials on Eco restoration of habitats and prediction of future spread for better managementItem Genetic assessment of the Non-descript pig breeds across selected regions of Uttarakhand(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2023) Sahoo, Khushboo; Gupta, S.K.; Gopi, G.V.India, which has ancient history of pig rearing, is home to several indigenous pig breeds that reflect the adaptation of Sus scrofa to different environmental and cultural conditions. However, only 13 of these breeds are currently recognized and documented by the National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources. The present research was undertaken to identify the spatial distribution, socio-economic status, pig husbandry methods of pig rearers, and the impact of Exotic pig breed on the indigenous breed and ecology of the region. As molecular characterization is a valuable tool that provides insights into the evolutionary history and genetic diversity of the current pig breed raise in a region. Hence by incorporating molecular techniques in understanding of the domestic pig breed and their interactions with ecosystems, promote more precise and science-based management that contributes to biodiversity conservation and sustainable husbandry practices. The present study will also aim to evaluate the maternal lineage, genetic diversity and population structure of the domestic pig breeds at the regional scale, using microsatellite markers and mitochondrial DNA sequences. The survey and sampling was done in the planar (Dehradun, Haridwar and Nainital) districts of Uttarakhand, a mountainous state of India that lies in the foothills of Himalayas, where rapid urbanisation and continuous migration make us reconsider the necessity of an organise promotion of the piggery sector due to its multiple ecological implications.Item Diversity and distribution of Moth Assemblages Along Altitudinal Gradient in Gangotri Landscape, India(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2015) Sanyal, Abesh Kumar; Uniyal, V.P.This study intends to document the extent of moth assemblages that exist amongst various habitats in a typical Western Himalayan altitudinal gradient in Gangotri Landscape Area (GLA). In this study, using the elevation gradient as natural experiment, the faunal structure and diversity of the moth assemblage featuring all the major macro and micromoth families as well as relationships between moths and their biotic and abiotic environments were explored. Specific objectives of the study were: (1) Documenting and prepare taxonomic inventory of rich moth fauna of Gangotri Landscape Area; (2) To assess diversity and distribution of moth assemblages among different elevations and vegetation types of Gangotri Landscape; (3) To analyze the influence of altitude, seasons, vegetation types and anthropogenic disturbance factors on moth assemblages; (4) To investigate morphometric changes (body size and proportional body parts) in moths along altitudinal gradient. The study was conducted in Gangotri Landscape Area (GLA), a vast conservation network in the North-Western part of Uttarakhand, in district Uttarkashi. A total of 670 morphospecies belonging to 22 families and 356 genera were collected during entire sampling period from 2008-2012. This study is an important step towards better understanding of a long-neglected but diverse and charismatic herbivorous insect assemblage in Himalayan temperate altitudinal gradient.Item Community Structure of Dung Beetles in Kailash Sacred Landscape, Pithoragarh, Uttarakhand, India(wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2020) Chauhan, Mona; Uniyal, V.P.; Chandra, KailashDue to the recent wave of urbanization, mountain areas are being transferred into urban and agriculture land at alarming rates. The Kailash Sacred Landscape, Pithoragarh, Uttarakhand, India is highly vulnerable due to fragmentation and urbanization, including increased anthropogenic disturbance, reduced area, loss of habitats, invasion of new species and ecological transformations. Therefore, it is important to document the status of biodiversity prevailing in these areas to identify the level of biodiversity still left in forest fragments. No records exist about the community structure of dung beetles in the landscape and hence we lack crucial historical documentation of the natural communities in landscape which would remain as an important source of information for measuring species extinctions in the area. This study provides basic inventory and diversity pattern of dung beetles from the undiscovered area of the Kailash Sacred Landscape, Pithoragarh, India. This study also suggested bioindicator based ecological monitoring and excellent insight for future conservation and management planning which will help the managers to set priority areas for habitat improvement or restrict areas to deteriorate any further. The study area is Kailash Sacred Landscape (KSL), Pithoragarh, India part exhibits great variability and heterogeneity in altitude and topography, due to this ecosystems of this region vary widely from subtropical to temperate, alpine, and cold high altitude desert types. Similarly, the landscape harbors a high diversity of flora and fauna of both regional and global significance.Item Patterns of distribution and multiscale-habitat correlates of riverine birds in the upper Ganges, Western Himalaya.(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2021) Sinha, Ankita; Ramesh, K.; Jayapal, R.Fauna associated with riverine ecosystems vary considerably at the global scale ranging from obligate terrestrial to obligate aquatic. Birds constitute key components of wildlife along running water systems. 2. The global river bird community is diverse with 66 species, spanning across 19 families with 37 non-passerines and 29 passerines. Asia has the maximum number of species followed by South America and Africa. 3. The global distribution ranges of specialist river birds show that large areas of the world hold few or no specialist riverine birds. Richness peaks in the eastern Himalaya and the Myanmar-China border, around the Kakabo Raazi mountains where more than 15 species of specialist river birds overlap in range. 4. Species richness reflects considerable radiation in particular groups; Muscicapidae (small passerine insectivorous birds mostly belonging to the old world) in Asia, ovenbirds (Funariidae) and tyrant flycatchers (Tyrannidae)in South America, and the Pratincoles (Glareolidae) in Africa. 5. Ecological understanding and conservation efforts of specialist river birds remain rudimentary especially in the tropics where rivers are faced with a host of threats. 6. In this particular study, field surveys were undertaken to understand bird community composition and river habitat characteristics across summer (breeding) and autumn (wintering/non-breeding) seasons in the Bhagirathi basin, a major headstream of the Upper Ganges in the state of Uttarakhand in the western Indian Himalaya between years 2014 and 2018.Item Diversity and Distribution Pattern of Moths (Lepidoptera : Heterocera) with special emphasis on family noctuidae in Askot Wildlife Sanctuary, Uttarakhand(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2021) Bandyopadhyay, Uttaran; Uniyal, V.P.This study has been planned to prepare a consolidated inventory of moth fauna of one of the most diverse protected areas of Uttarakhand, the Askot Wildlife Sanctuary, to assess the seasonal variation of a specialist group, the Noctuidae. The study also aimed to determine the effects of the environmental factors that govern the distribution as well as assemblage pattern of this particular family and targeted to identify the species with potential to indicate overall quality of the different habitats altitudinally which in term will contribute in future species conservation strategies.
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