M Sc Dissertation(WII)

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    Golden Langur Distribution, Habitat Selection and Corridor – Connectivity: Assessing Patterns and Addressing Threats
    (Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2024) Basumatary, Rishi; Nath, Anukul; Gopi, G.V.; Chetry, Dilip
    The Golden Langur (Trachypithecus geei), is an endangered colobine primate, confined to fragmented forest patches in western Assam, India, and south-central Bhutan. The golden langur has experienced severe habitat loss and fragmentation due to ethnolinguistic and religious conflicts between the late 1980s and late 1990s, followed by developmental activities in western Assam. The primary threat faced by the golden langur in India are the rapid reduction of its natural environment and the fragmentation of its habitat. Factors such as a limited population size, the breakdown of meta-population dynamics, and unique traits of a species often make a population in a fragment more likely to experience local extinction. Due to the significant decline in the range of Golden langur in both Bhutan and India, as well as the ongoing destruction of their habitat in India, it is imperative to safeguard even the smallest local populations. The populations residing in these fragmented Reserved Forests and Proposed Reserved Forests are effectively confined, separated from the primary breeding population, and susceptible to demographic and genetic influences. The objective of this study is to understand the current distribution, suitable habitat, and connectivity of corridors for the severely fragmented southern population of golden langur in India. Additionally, the study aims to examine the specific habitat preferences and demographic patterns of langur groups, as well as evaluate the threats that this fragmented population faces. The study was carried out in nine fragmented forest patches that includes Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS), Community managed RF (CMRF) Reserved Forest (RFs), and Private Rubber Plantations and Adjoining Forests (PRP_AF). In the present study, a total of 123 trails, ranging from 0.4 km to 1.6 km, were walked, covering a total distance of 118.72 kilometers. During these surveys, a total 51 troops (including 8 multi-male multi-female troops and 5 all-male groups), consisting of 499 individuals were encountered. The mean group size and age-sex ratio between different protected regimes that include wildlife sanctuary (WLS), community managed RF (CMRF), reserved forest (RF) and private rubber plantation and adjoining forests (PRP_AF) were compared. The overall mean group size of the langur was 9.78 (± 0.69 SE). Of the total 499 individuals, 13.22 % comprised of adult males, 41.88 % adult females, 16.83 % sub-adults, 10.02 % was juveniles and 18.03 % was infant. The average age-sex ratio of adult males to adult females was 0.287 (± 0.04 SE), juveniles to adult females was 0.224 (± 0.02 SE) and infants to adult females was 0.407 (± 0.04 SE). The infant to female ratio was found higher in wildlife sanctuary as compared to other reserved forests in the study area. The current study revealed that approximately 883 km² of the area is highly suitable for the endangered golden langur. Percent forest cover was found to be the most important variable in determining the probability of occurrence of golden langur in India. The corridor connectivity analysis showed high conductance for corridors namely Bamungaon and Khoragaon RF. Similarly, the connectivity is permeable between Kakoijana and Bamungaon. Other corridors identified in the study are Bhumeshwar Hill, Nakati RF and Kakoijana RF. On the other hand, there is high conductance among corridors of Chakrashila WLS and Nadangiri RF. Additionally, fine scale habitat selection study showed that tree species diversity, canopy cover and food plant density are the key in determining the occurrence of golden langur. In the last six years, a total of 56 mortality and injury incidents were reported from the study area which include 45 deaths and 11 injuries. Electrocution accounted for 29 cases, especially near forest edges, while 21 road accidents occurred mainly on national and state highways, as these roads are broader and have higher traffic volumes compared to village and town roads. Most accidents happened in the corridors between Chakrashila WLS-Nadangiri RF and Kakoijona RF-Bamungaon RF. Specific measures need to be taken to minimize electrocutions and road accidents of golden langur in the region. Mitigation measures like insulating electric lines and road safety protocols such artificial canopy bridges (ACB) and metal animal overpasses (MAOP) are essential for safe and easy movement along these corridors for the golden langur's survival in fragmented habitats
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    Beyond the forest: Intraspecific and interspecific aggression in Rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta)
    (Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2024) Santosh, Charushree; Kumara, H.N.; Mahajan, Prashant
    Rhesus macaques and human have been coexisting from a long time. Living in such close proximity to each other have bought various challenges to both species. Some challenges could be solved by behavioural modifications. This study looks at how various factors affect the aggression in both macaques and humans towards each other and their conspecifics. This study helps in understanding the frequency of aggression in macaques towards each other and humans in different settings. Direction of major aggressive interactions and the factors behind these events were also noted. Human aggression towards macaques were also seen. Most common reason for human initiated aggression was property damage while, for macaques it was threat. This kind of behavioural studies help us manage conflict with this communal species and also lets us see how human presence and behaviour might influence macaque behaviour.
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    Intra-specific variation in seed dispersal effectiveness of Lion-tailed Macaques Macaca silenus
    (Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2024) Bindu, K.; Kumar, H.N. Dr. H. N. Kumara Dr. Navendu Page Dr. Rohit Naniwadekar; Page, Navendu V.; Naniwadekar, Rohit
    1. Tropical forests are one of the most biodiverse ecosystems on Earth. Seed dispersal is one of the important interactions that maintains species richness and ecosystem functions. Vertebrate frugivores, especially birds and mammals, play a crucial role in dispersing seeds. The dispersal effectiveness of these dispersers is influenced by factors such as size, age, sex, dominance hierarchy and behaviour types. Invasive species pose significant threats to tropical ecosystems, rapidly forming mutualistic relations with native dispersers. This study focuses on the lion-tailed macaques Macaca silenus in the Western Ghats to explore how age-sex categories influence seed dispersal of native and exotic species in terms of diversity and quantity of fruits consumed, quantity of seeds dispersed, daily distance travelled and seed deposition site. 2. I employed non-invasive behavioural sampling on four troops of the lion-tailed macaques for four months. Focal animal sampling of 375.9 hours was employed on individuals belonging to three age sex categories, including adult males, adult females and subadults. Faecal samples were collected to assess quantity of seeds dispersed, and the substrate at seed deposition site was recorded. The movement of focal individual was tracked for the entire duration of the observation. 3. Subadults consumed higher diversity of fruits than females and males. Subadults also consumed more native fruits, while females consumed more non-native fruits. The pairwise dietary overlap between all age-sex categories was high. The rate of consumption of nonnative fruits increased as day progressed. Subadults dispersed significantly less Ficus seeds than the other age-sex categories. Daily movements showed no significant differences across age-sex categories. However, I found weak evidence of males being more likely to disperse seeds on trees, which could be more suitable for Ficus germination. The differences in 7 feeding patterns also highlight the greater importance of subadults in the dispersal of a greater diversity of fruit plant species. 4. The invasives Coffea spp. and Lantana camara constituted up to 90% of the diet of the three age-sex categories. There was difference in the relative proportions of these two species. Males consumed more Coffea spp., whereas subadults and females consumed more Lantana fruits. The macaques dispersed Ficus seeds in clumps, increasing the risk of predation or microbial infection. 5. This study generates novel information on intra-specific variation in seed dispersal, a relatively understudied topic. It also highlights lion-tailed macaques' significant role in dispersing alien invasive species in degraded rainforests and provides valuable insights into their understudied role as seed dispersers.
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    How Disturbed are the Disturbed Ones ? Impacts of Anthropogenic Stressors on the Socio-Ecological Interactions of Terai Gray Langur (Semnopithecus hector) in Shivalik Hills
    (Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2021) Dwivedi, Divya; Habib, Bilal; Qureshi, Qamar
    Animals respond to the changes in their habitats numerically and behaviourally. Alterations caused by anthropogenic stresses, like habitat degradation, fragmentation, urbanisation, changes in land use patterns, etc., changes the ecology of most species. Understanding the patterns adopted by these species to successfully survive and reproduce in such habitats is of utmost importance. This study tried to understand the impacts of human disturbance on the socio-ecology of Terai Gray langurs in Shivalik landscape, by comparing the ecology of langur troops inside the protected forest with the troops in disturbed forest. Four troops of Terai Gray langur, of comparable sizes, two in each treatment were selected.
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    Endoparasitic Prevalence and Associated Physiological Changes in Rhesus Macaques (Macaca mulatta) Across Areas of Different Intensities of Human Use
    (Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2019) Nulkar, Sakshi
    This study was conducted on the endoparasites of Rhesus Macaques in two areas namely Chandrabani and Rajaji-Chidiyapur during the months of January to April 2019. The aim of this study is to understand whether, between two study areas, there is a difference in the parasite prevalence levels, and incidence of mixed infections of parasites in Rhesus macaques. Also, the aim is to see if a relationship exists between parasite prevalence and the blood parameters. Parasitism is considered to be a natural phenomenon present within any population. However, it is worth questioning whether the parasite populations share many host species in an area of high human-wildlife interface and whether human parasites find refuge in macaques also. Rhesus macaques were studied in Chandrabani area (higher intensity of human use) and Rajaji-Chidiyapur (low intensity of human use). Within the study areas of Chandrabani and Rajaji-Chidiyapur, the Chandrabani area was speculated to have higher parasite prevalence. A total of 143 faecal samples were collected from both the areas. These samples were analysed in the laboratory for the morphological identification of the parasite genera. For the blood samples, a total of 49 animals were captured and their blood samples were taken for blood testing. Levels of bilirubin, haemoglobin, total proteins, albumin, differential leukocyte counts, RBC counts, platelets etc. are known to show relationships with the parasite infections and hence these parameters were analysed amongst others. Parasite prevalence was calculated for the two areas separately, which indicated the number of individuals that were infected by a particular parasite in the host populations. Blood parameters were correlated with these parasite prevalences to visualize their relationships. Parasite prevalence was found to be significantly higher in Chandrabani area than Rajaji- Chidiyapur. However, parasite species richness and the incidence of multi-species (mixed) infections in Rhesus macaques were not different between the two areas. Amongst the blood parameters, the mean values of total bilirubin, total protein, RBC count and haemoglobin values showed strong correlations with parasite prevalences of the troops in Chandrabani area. This data for the haematological and biochemical parameters is the first such report for free-ranging Rhesus Macaques in northern India.
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    Niche partitioning between assamese and rhesus macaque in the Askot landscape of Uttarakhand, Northern India
    (Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2017) Justa, Priyanka; Kumar, R.S.; Talukdar, Gautam
    Closely related species often have similar requirements and these species need to have certain ecological adaptations to live in sympatry. Two congeneric species the Assamese (Macaca assamensis) and the rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) co-occurring in the Askot landscape of Uttarakhand were studied to understand the mechanisms allowing their coexistence. 2. Ecological niche differentiation for the two species was investigated by examining three possible modes of separation: activity pattern, diet and spatial use following observational protocols over a period of five months (December 2016-April 2017). Crop-raiding by macaques often results in human-macaque conflict. With the help of semi-structured interviews, attempts were made to access the level of conflict and people’s perception of these two macaque species. 3. Limited niche overlap was found between two primate species across the study duration. The Assamese macaque differed from the rhesus macaque in time spent on various activities. The former spent more time feeding and the latter in resting. Although 44% of all food items were consumed by both the species, only three of the ten major food items were shared. Assamese macaques preferred leaves and had broader niche breadth compared to rhesus macaques who fed more selectively on fruits. There was a significant difference in feeding heights, habitat and roosting site preferences of the two species. Differences in diet choice and roosting sites, in turn, resulted in differences in daily movement and home range of these species. Despite a partial home range overlap, both these species were found to be spatially segregated at a local scale. 4. The extent of niche overlap across winter and spring seasons in the area showed the greatest divergence in the diets of the two species in winter, while diet overlap was more pronounced in spring. As resources were abundant in the spring, an increase in niche overlap may not have lead to competitive interactions. Synthesis and application: Knowledge about differential resource use of macaques might help in assigning conservation priorities to the different species and their specific ecological niches along with designing species-specific management strategies. The study was able to distinguish the macaque's tendency to co-exist with humans.
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    Activity Patterns and Food Habits of the Phayre's Leaf Monkey (Trachypithecus phayrei) in Free-Ranging and Captive Conditions in Sepahijala Wildlife Sanctuary, Tripura
    (Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2015) Lama, Pragya Aishwarya; Tyagi, P.C.; Nigam, Parag; Sankar, K.
    Maintenance of ex-situ populations of species threatened with extinction is a potential tool for ensuring recovery. Ex-situ conservation efforts though ongoing in India have been minimally documented. The present study aimed to fill gaps in information on the activity patterns and food habits of the endangered Phayre's leaf monkey (Trachypitheclis phayrei), a specialist feeder primarily a foliovore. This aspect was studied both in free-ranging and captive conditions. The study site posed a unique feature wherein the captive study species was located only ill one zoo all. over India which also happened to be within its geographical area. Thus, the Sepahijala Zoological Park (SZP) situated within the Sepahijala Wildlife Sanctuary (SWLS), Tripura was chosen as a study site. It was hypothesized that the activity patterns obtained from both the settings would be similar and that the nutrient composition of the food items consumed in wild and offered in captivity would not be much different from each other. A reconnaissance survey was carried out in which the available population, troop size and composition of Phayre's leaf monkey was assessed in both, the SWLS arid SZP. A IS-minute 'scan sampling' was conducted from dawn to dusk for studying the activity patterns of the troop selected for observation in the wild (after habituation) and in captivity. The activity data was analysed keeping in mind different age and sex categories within the wild and captive troops and across the two different settings. Chi square test was used to test for significant differences inactivity patterns within and across the captive and wild troop. The food habits (plants, plant parts and frequency eaten) of the Phayre's leaf monkey were studied on the basis of scans obtained as well as casual observations of the other free-ranging counterparts. Eaten food plants were identified and nutrient analysis was done for positive and negative nutrients after collecting and drying the samples from the field. Subsequently, it was processed at the laboratory in Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. The nutrients analysed were compared using the independent samples t-test.
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    Social Behaviour and Duetting in Hoolock Gibbons in Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam
    (Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2009) Sankaran, Sumithra; Rawat, G.S.; Kumar, R.S.
    The hoolock gibbon (Hoolock hoolock), only anthropoid primate found in India, is a pair-living, territorial species, which duets extensively. Various hypotheses regarding the function of this behaviour in monogamous primates include territory advertisement, pair-bonding, mate defense, resource defence and group cohesion. This study aimed to understand the nature of social behaviour of this species, and how duetting fits into the repertoire of social behaviour seen in this animal. Three groups of Hoolock gibbons were habituated and studied intensively over a three month period. Relationships between the different group members were explored, alongside time budgets of various activities of the adult pair, the synchrony in their behaviour and frequency and nature of all affiliative and agonistic behaviours. Relationships between territory sizes, group sizes, frequency of duetting and nature of other social interactions have been examined in detail. A considerable amount of individual difference were found between the different study animals in their interactions with other group members. These animals display complex affiliative interactions with rare displays of aggression. It was found that although the proportion of time spent in social interactions was comparable between the three groups, the proportioning of this total time among different social interactions may vary considerably. The primary difference was found to be in allogrooming interactions with the proportion of time time spent increasing with increase in group size. The study also found considerable evidence for the possible existance of male-care in this species.
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    Social Behaviour and Communication Among Wild Lion-Tailed Macaque (Macaca silenus) in the Indira Ganghi Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu
    (Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2001) Raghavan, Roopali; Gupta, A.K.; Johnsingh, A.J.T.
    This study on the social behaviour and communication among wild lion-tailed macaque was carried out between November 2000 and April 2001, on a group of lion-tailed macaques that inhabit the wet evergreen Puthutotam forest fragment. located within the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary in the Anaimalai hills, Tamil Nadu.The troop consisted of 16 to 19 animals. For the purpose of this study, social interactions within and between adults and subadults of both sexes were considered. Focal animal sampling and instantaneous scan sampling was thus conducted on only ten identified individuals (four males and six females) in the troop. A complete ethogram describing all behaviour observed during the period of the study was repared. The time-activity budget was calculated for the troop. The predominant behavioural states among all the individuals were Active Forage (mean ± SD of 22.4 ± 0.08%), Active Feed (17.0 ± 0.05%), Sit (16.6 ± 0.04%), Move (13 ± 0.030/0), Passive Forage (6.8 ± 0.02%) and Passive Feed (6.5 ± 0.02%). The adult males and females of the study troop differed in the proportion of time spent by them in the different behavioural states. Autogroom and Allogroom accounted for the principal difference between the sexes. Adult males spent relatively greater time Autogrooming than females, while females allogroomed relatively more. Dominance ranks were calculated independently for males and females in the study troop. Among both males and females, rank position in the dominance hierarchy appeared to be influenced strongly by body size. This is an unusual finding for the females of cercopithecine primate species, implying the existence of an unique individual-based dominance hierarchy among the study females. There was i.e remarkable similarity in the frequency with which dominant and subordinate females displayed virtually all behaviours towards each other in dyadic interactions. This provides support to the prevailing view that lion-tailed macaques indeed display an egalitarian nature. Classification of the gestures and vocalisations were observed to be largely dependent on the dominance rank of the individuals. with certain gestures being characteristic of submission. Males and females showed differential use of the gestures and expressions.
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    Food selection and ranging in hoolock gibbon (Hylobates hoolock Harlan 1834) in Borajan reserved forest, Assam
    (Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 1997) Kakati, Kashmira; Sathyakumar, S.
    This study on food selection and ranging in the hoolock gibbon (Hylobates hoolock ,Harlan 1834) was carried out between December 1996 and April 1997 in Borajan Reserve Forest, a disturbed and fragmented patch of remnant tropical evergreen forest in Upper Assam, India. The hoolock gibbon is a primarily frugivorous species, confined to closed-canopy evergreen forests of North-east India, Bangladesh and Burma. This type is highly endangered in its entire range. Threats to the continued existence of the hoolock are from large-scale destruction of its habitat and hunting. Two troops of gibbons were followed intensively for four months and behavioural data were collected by continuous focal animal observations. Data were also collected ad libitum on a third troop. Data on the structural components of the vegetation and on the availability of food resources in the Intensive study area were collected systematically. The results of the study show that food availability influenced the diet, movement patterns, home-range sizes and behaviour of hoolock gibbons. Gibbons were selective in their diet using only forty-three plant species out of the more than two-hundred species present. Figs constituted important keystone resources for the gibbons. In months of low fruit availability, the gibbons had a predominantly folivorous diet. Home ranges were small (10.4 ha and 5.4 ha) and habitat degradation represents the greatest threat to the gibbons