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    Status of the Lesser Florican Sypheotides indicus and implications for its conservation
    (Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2018) Dutta, S.; Narwade, S.; Bipin, C.M.; Gadhavi, D.; Uddin, M.; Mhaskar, M.; Pandey, D.; Mohan, A.; Sharma, H.; Iyer, S.; Tripathi, R.; Verma, V.; Varma, V.; Jangid, A.K.; Chakdar, B.; Karulkar, A.; Lambture, B.; Khongsai, N.; Kumar, S.; Gore, K.; Jhala, D.; Vaidya, N.; Horne, B.; Chittora, A.; Annigeri, B.S.; Trivedi, M.; Jhala, Y.V.
    Lesser Florican (Sypheotides indicus) is an endangered agro-grassland bird whose ecology and status are poorly known that impedes conservation efforts. To fill this gap, a national status survey was designed by the Endangered Species Recovery Program of Wildlife Institute of India and was jointly implemented with Bombay Natural History Society, The Corbett Foundation and State Forest Departments across the species’ breeding range. This report documents the methodology of this exercise, and presents its findings on lesser florican’s distribution, abundance, habitat relationships, threats and their implications for conservation.2. We delineated lesser florican’ breeding range using informed digitization with the aid of MaxEnt distribution model, and inputs from local experts.We assessed the species’ status based on displaying males, using spatially representative sampling and analytical design that accounted for imperfect detection. Our assessment used hurdle modeling approach, where we: a) first estimated the species’ occupancy in 36 sq km cells using vehicle observation points (stop-overs), and b) estimated the species’ abundance at detected sites (subset of occupied sites) using line transect distance sampling. c) quantified habitat characteristics (land cover, vegetation structure and anthropogenic pressures) systematically along occupancy and distance surveys. d) explored and developed statistical relationships between habitat covariates and occupancy/abundance. e) mapped the species’ distribution, local densities and threats, to generate conservation priority map. We drew inferences at the scale of breeding range and eco-geographically defined regions and landscapes (Ajmer: Shokaliya-Kekri; Rest of Rajasthan : Shahpura, Jalore, Pratapgarh; Gujarat: Kutch, Saurashtra; Madhya Pradesh: Ratlam; Maharashtra: Akola-Washim). 3. The status survey was conducted during the breeding season (July– September, 2017) with a team of 121 observers, who were trained on the standard data collection protocol through state-level workshops at Bhavnagar, Ujjain, Ajmer and Akola. Lesser florican occupancy was assessed at 428 sites (36 sq km) spread across ~20,000 sq km range, using 5564 stop-overs, and density was assessed in 32 sites (where the species was detected) using 479 km transect-walks that yielded 70 sightings (64 males, 6 females).
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    Status and trend of Great Indian Bustard, associated wildlife and threats in Thar
    (Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2017) Dutta, S.; Bipin, C.M.; Anoop, K.R.; Uddin, M.; Shekhawat, R.S.; Jhala, Y.V.
    Arid ecosystems of India support unique biodiversity and traditional agro-pastoral livelihoods. However, these habitats are highly threatened due to large-scale land-use changes and historical neglect of conservation policies. The Critically Endangered great Indian bustard acts as a flagship and indicator of this ecosystem, for which Government is planning conservation actions that will also benefit associated wildlife. Persistence of this species critically depends on Thar landscape, where ~75 % of the global population resides. Since 2014, Wildlife Institute of India and Rajasthan Forest Department have been jointly conducting scientific surveys to better understand the current status, distribution patterns, and local contexts of key conservation-dependent species in Thar for informing management actions. This study assessed the status of great Indian bustard, chinkara and fox alongside their habitat and anthropogenic pressures across 19,728 km2 of potential bustard landscape in Thar spanning Jaisalmer, Jodhpur and Bikaner districts of Rajasthan. Systematic surveys were conducted in 144 km2 cells from slow-moving vehicle along 17.9 + 3.9SD km transects to record species’ detections, habitat characteristics in sampling plots, and secondary information on species’ occurrences. Multiple teams comprising field biologists and Forest Department staff simultaneously and rapidly sampled 108 cells along 1697 km transects in March 2014, 77 cells along 1246 km transects in March 2015,and 120 cells along 2273 km transects in March 2016. Sampling was carried out in two phases: extensive surveys to assess great Indian bustard occurrence across the landscape and intensive surveys to estimate their density in used cells. Great Indian bustard and other key species' detection data were analyzed in Occupancy and Distance Sampling framework to estimate proportion of sites used and density/abundance. Detection/non-detection data from multiple year surveys (2014-16) showed that great Indian bustard used 10.9 ± 3.4SE % sites (naive occupancy 8.4%). Bird density in used sites (cells where at least one bird was detected during 2015-16) was estimated at 6.5 ± 1.4SE /100 km2. Random sampling of the potential bustard landscape in Thar using line transect distance sampling yielded density and abundance estimates of 0.84 + 0.38 birds/100 km2 and 166 + 74 birds in 2016. During the surveys 38 (2014), 40 (2015) and 37 (2016) individual birds were detected. Bustard-habitat relationships, assessed using 5 multinomial logistic regression, showed that disturbances and level of protection influenced distribution in this landscape. Great Indian bustard occurrence in the landscape declined with distance from enclosure (regression effect size = -0.06 ± 0.02SE), human presence (-3.22 ± 1.52SE) and infrastructural intensity (-3.97 ± 1.61SE). Chinkara was found in 78% sites and its density at landscape-scale was estimated at 187.5 ± 25.1SE animals/100 km2, yielding abundance of 37,000 + 4970SE in 19,728 km2 area (2016). Desert and Indian fox used 60 ± 7SE % of sites, at densities of 14.35 ± 3.46SE desert fox/100km2 and 2.28 ± 1.19SE Indian fox/100km2 at landscape-scale, and abundances of 2830 ± 683SE desert fox and 450 ± 235SE Indian fox in 19,728 km2 area. Eleven percent of sampled cells were found to be of high conservation value, out of which, 62% cells were outside Protected Area. Although some of these 'unprotected' areas benefit from community protection or inviolate spaces created due to Army occupation, others continue to be threatened by hunting and unplanned land-uses. Our study provides robust abundance estimates of key species in Thar. It provides spatially explicit information on species’ distribution and ecological parameters to guide site-specific management and policy. Our questionnaires generated spatial patterns of community composition, livelihoods, livestock holdings and species’ occurrence reports that will help in designing community outreach and conservation programs. Thar supports the largest global population of great Indian bustard and offers the best hope for its persistence. This survey captured snapshots of great Indian bustard distribution that needs to be augmented with satellite telemetry based information on seasonal landscape use to mitigate threats. Based on results and field experiences, we strongly recommend: a) improving great Indian bustard recruitment in existing enclosures using predator-proof-fences and nest-predator removal, b) creating more enclosures or conservation/community reserves in priority conservation cells, c) smart and intensive patrolling to control poaching and generate management information, d) targeted research to understand local ecology of great Indian bustard, characterize threats, and ranging patterns, e) addressing local livelihood concerns through social research, and f) engaging local communities to monitor and protect wildlife through outreach and incentive programs.
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    Status of Great Indian Bustard and associated wildlife in Thar
    (Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2016) Dutta, S.; Bipin, C.M.; Bhardwaj, G.S.; Anoop, K.R.; Jhala, Y.V.
    Despite unique biodiversity values and dependency of traditional agro-pastoral livelihoods, arid open habitats of India are facing imminent risk due to our neglect and mismanagement. The Critically Endangered Great Indian Bustard (GIB) acts as a flagship and indicator of this ecosystem, for which Governments are planning conservation actions that will also benefit associated wildlife. Persistence of this species critically depends on the Thar landscape, where ~75% of the global population resides, yet their status, distribution and ecological requirements remain poorly understood. This study aimed at assessing the status of Great Indian Bustard, Chinkara and Fox alongside their habitat and anthropogenic stressors across ~25,500 km2 of potential bustard landscape in Thar spanning Jaisalmer and Jodhpur districts of Rajasthan. Systematic surveys were conducted in 144 km2 cells from slow-moving vehicle along 15-20 km transects to record species’ detections, habitat characteristics in sampling plots, and secondary information on species’ occurrence. Eighteen teams comprising of field biologists and Forest Department staff sampled 118 cells along 1924 km transect in March 2014. Species’ detection data were analyzed in Occupancy and Distance Sampling framework to estimate area of occupancy and density/abundance of key species. Our key findings were that Great Indian Bustard occupied 5.8 ± 4.4 % of sites, although information from local community questionnaire surveys recorded usage in 27% of sites. Bird density was estimated at 0.61 ± 0.36 /100 km2, yielding abundance estimates of 103 ± 62 in the sampled area (16,992 km2) and 155 ± 94 GIB in Thar landscape (25488 km2 area). During the survey, 38 individual birds were detected. Bustard-habitat relationships, assessed using multinomial logistic regression, showed that disturbances, level of protection and topography influenced distribution. Chinkara population occupied 91.0 ± 3.4% of sites at overall density of 378 ± 57 animals/100 km2 and abundance of 96,291 ± 14,556 in the landscape. Desert Fox population occupied 53.5 ± 8.8 % of sites, at overall density of 33.58 ± 8.17 animals/100 km2 and abundance of 8,558 ± 2,081 in the landscape. Seventy-five percent of priority conservation sites were outside Protected Area. Although some of them benefit from community protection, majority are threatened by hunting and unplanned landuses. This study provides robust abundance estimates of key species in the Thar landscape. It also provides spatially-explicit information on species’ occurrence and ecological parameters so as to guide in-situ site-specific management and policy. Thar landscape supports the largest global population of GIB with the best hope for the species’ future survival. Since this survey was a snapshot at GIB distribution, landscape-scale seasonal use information is lacking but critically required. A satellite telemetry based study should be urgently implemented to prioritize areas for conservation investment.
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    Status and trend of Great Indian Bustard associated wildlife, habitat and threats in Thar.
    (Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2026) Dutta, S.; Kher, V.; Jangid, A.K.; Uddin, M.; Supakar, S.; Gupta, S.; Lawrence, S.; Paul, I.; Pati, A.; Gurjar, M.; Dagur, T.; Sen, S.; Gowda, Y.; Sindha, P.; Moitra, M.; Kapadi, P.; Dobhal, P.; Bhardwaj, G.S.
    This report presents findings from past and recent surveys to provide an updated account of population status, spatial distribution and habitat conditions of the GIB and associated fauna across the Thar landscape. It also evaluates the growing human footprint that fragments habitats and escalate species displacement and mortality risks. These findings aim to inform conservation management under the National Bustard Recovery Program, supporting population recovery through conservation breeding, adaptive habitat management, grassland restoration and threat mitigation.
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    Monitoring of Re-introduced tigers (Panthera tigris tigris) Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan - Phase II
    (Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2018) Nigam, Parag; Habib, Bilal; Sankar, K.; Qureshi, Q.; Mandal, D.; Sengupta, D.; Malik, P.K.
    The reintroduction being an intensive process required timely scientific inputs. The Wildlife Institute of India was bestowed with a responsibility of monitoring the reintroduced population with support of the National Tiger Conservation Authority since reintroduction. The animals gradually settled in Sariska, however did not breed for the first four years probably due to high stress levels and lack of inviolate space (Sankar et aI., 2013). High stress levels among the reintroduced tigers was observed due to the prevailing disturbance in Sariska (Bhattacharjee et aI., 2013). The first record of animal breeding was of ST2 in 2012. Village relocation process to create inviolate space for tiger breeding was also initiated simultaneously. A total of 565 Gujjar pastoralist families were relocated from six villages. The reintroduced population was continuously monitored over the years as part of the collaborative initiative between Rajasthan Forest Department, Wildlife Institute of India and National Tiger Conservation Authority. The report of the Phase I (2008-13) and the extended period (2013-15) were duly submitted. The Phase II of the project was initiated in 2015 to primarily study the response of reintroduced tigers and their prey to village relocation efforts and to explore the future population management. The objective of the Phase II were as follows: i. To study the home range and dispersal patterns of the re-introduced tigers and cubs with respect to relocated villages ii. To assess the habitat use by the re-introduced tigers and cubs with respect to relocated villages iii. To study the food habits of the re-introduced tigers iv. To estimate the population of the prey species v. To suggest management recommendations for effective conservation of tigers in the Tiger Reserve The findings of the influence of village relocation on tiger and prey population, and future management scope have been provided in the Annual Progress Report (2015 -16). Findings on the ranging pattern of tigers, factors influencing breeding of tigers, diet, temporal activity, and an update on the age-sex pattern of the tiger population for active population management in Sariska were presented in the annual report (2016 - 17). Here, we summarize our project findings to formulate conservation strategies for long term survival of Sariska's tiger population.
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    Capacity building initiative on the dispersal and ranging patterns of elephants for effective management of human-elephant interactions
    (Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2022) Nigam, P.; Pandav, B.; Mondol, S.; Lakshmiarayanan, N.; Kumar, A.; Nandwanshi, V.B.; Das, J.; Biswas, S.; Udhayaraj, A.D.; Vishwakarma, R.; Habib, B.; Miachieo, K.; Narasingh Rao, P.V.
    Wild Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) populations are distributed in four major regions namely North West, North-East, East-Central and Southern regional meta-populations across India. Amongst them, the East-central regional population spread across the States of Odisha, Jharkhand, southern West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, and lately in Madhya Pradesh suffers disproportionately high levels of human elephant conflict. Among the myriad challenges facing management of human-elephant conflict in the region, elephant range expansion into new areas is overriding. One such range expansion that resulted in acute human-elephant conflict is being witnessed in the State of Chhattisgarh. Although northern Chhattisgarh was historically an elephant range, elephants reportedly disappeared during the period 1920 to late 1980s. While episodes of sporadic elephant occurrence in Chhattisgarh was reported during the period 1988- 1993, contemporary range expansion and concomitant human-elephant conflict began from the year 2000, and has accelerated during the last one decade. Faced with an enormous challenge of managing human-elephant conflict that is spatiotemporally dynamic unlike that of other elephant range States, constrained by limited Institutional capacities to assess and deal with the issue. Chhattisgarh Forest Department has been trying diversity its conflict mitigation strategies. Recognizing the need to objectively evaluate human-elephant conflict situation in the State, during the year 2017 Chhattisgarh Forest Department invited Wildlife Institute of India to conduct ecological research on elephants in Chhattisgarh with a three-year budget outlay. The project was a collaborative effort between Chhattisgarh Forest Department and WII. Considering the scope of the project, the project duration was further extended and eventually, the project lasted for the period July 2017 to March 2022. Being the final project report, the activities carried out as part of the project is summarized as under. Distribution and Demography In Chhattisgarh, the elephant distribution during the period 2012 to 2017 was reported from 16 Forest Divisions and four Protected Areas in the north and north-central regions of the state. The elephant population, as enumerated by Chhattisgarh Forest Department during 2021 , ranged from 250 to 300. The adult sex ratio recorded during the study was 1: 4.5. About 44% of the female segment of the population comprised of adults. Chhattisgarh elephant population is presently contiguous with other elephant populations in the neighboring states i.e., Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand and in Odisha occurring as a meta-population 1 and thus cannot be considered as an isolated population. However, within Chhattisgarh, the population is relatively small and it occurs scattered over a large area as small and disjunctive groups facing a perpetual risk of getting isolated by ongoing linear infrastructure and other associated developmental activities in the State. If such groups get isolated, then they will not be viable in the long run. 1 Meta-population: Population of small populations that are connected through dispersals 1 O. ~ . -~ 1 -WU.d.U.fe .In.s-titu-te. o.f .In.di a Home Range, Movement Patterns & Dispersal, and Habitat Selection by Elephants During the period 2018-2022, WII-CGFD collaborative effort resulted in 10 elephant radio collaring in Chhattisgarh. The resultant effort provided 3106 elephant days of tracking information. Each of the radiocollared elephants provided an average of 310.6 (± 273) days of tracking data. As on 31 51 March 2022 when WII-CGFD collaborative project ended, two of the collared elephants (SD - Sehradev and MT - Maitri) were having functional collars. The estimated average home range (95% minimum convex polygon) of elephants in Chhattisgarh was 3172.8 km2 (± 2002.2 km2, Range: 462.3 - 6969.7 km2). The 95% kernel density home ranges of elephants were much lower averaging 512.3 km2 (± 235.3 km2, Range: 126.5 - 748.9 km2). The elephant home ranges were not wholly well defined, and marked by inter-annual shifts caused by exploratory behaviour. The elephant home ranges were relatively large. The dry season home ranges were significantly lower than monsoon and winter ranges. However, dry season home ranges of elephants are larger. The present study indicates that habitat quality in some of the forest patches - particularly those that are large and contiguous with minimal of human interference can potentially support elephants in the landscape. Thus, dry season ranges of elephants could serve as a surrogate for habitat quality. Monthly variations in home ranges were significant, and best explained by idiosyncrasies of individual elephants. Among the forest types open, moderately dense and very dense forests classified by Forest Survey of India based on crown densities, elephants selected open forests, that were predominantly juxtaposed with human-use areas. Although the crown density was low, the patches of open forests support dense stands of Sal (Shorea robusta) coppice with rank undergrowth offering adequate cover for elephants. Elephant habitat selection of these open forest patches appears to be influenced by potential foraging opportunities in human-use areas, and further facilitated by low inter-patch distance. Genetic Structure of Elephants Using 258 genetic samples collected from 9 Forest Divisions, elephant genetic structure in northern Chhattisgarh was evaluated. Analysis indicates that at least two different elephant lineages occur in Chhattisgarh. This implies that elephants occurring in Chhattisgarh have possibly come from different areas. Within the two different lineages, high relatedness amongst the individuals was observed corroborating with the general social structure of Asian elephant clans where individuals are mostly related. Crop Losses and Human Fatalities due to Elephants Crop losses caused by elephants were acute and widespread in Chhattisgarh. To draw an analogy, Karnataka's ex gratia payment towards crop losses by elephants during the period 2015-2020 was comparable with Chhattisgarh, although the former's elephant population is 93% more than the latter. The landscape-level assessment covering the whole of northern Chhattisgarh, and fine-scale assessment covering select areas in Surguja circle identified correlates of crop losses at both spatial scales. Elephant-related human deaths were widespread in the state. However, nearly 70% of incidences occurred in areas of high intensity of habitat-use by elephants. The human fatalities due to elephants were both temporally and spatially auto-correlated. 2
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    Ecology of tigers in Pench Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra
    (Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2013) Sankar, K.; Qureshi, Q.; Jhala, Y.V.; Gopal, R.; Majumdar, Aniruddha; Basu, S.
    The present study aimed to map land use/land cover patterns and to assess spatial structure and configuration of landscape; structure and composition of vegetation types in landscape; and varies ecological aspects of tiger (Panthera tigris) in a tropical deciduous forest of Central India from 2005 to 2013. Prey species availability was estimated using line transect method in an intensive study areas of 410 sq km between January 2007 and June 2012.
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    Population estimation and monitoring protocol for hangul to central and South division of Kashmir
    (Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2004) Qureshi, Q.; Shah, Nita
    Census of Wildlife is an investigation that requires knowledge of, how many animals are present either now or in the future. It is important to examine the methods and use the robust, the ones in consultation with the concerned specialists. The Department of Wildlife Protection has been conducting regular census of Hangul in Dachigam National Park by adopting traditional method of total count in blocks. The estimation of numbers of wild animals has now achieved a level of sophistication and the methods have gone from simple counts to complex relation, involving numerous assumptions. The aim of this exercise was not to fallow the counting of population, but to explore the trend of population in order to monitor the same in future.
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    Ecological impacts of major invasive alien plants on native flora in Rajaji Tiger Reserve, Uttarakhand
    (Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2024) Kumar, Amit; Kumar, S.; Sahu, H.; Patra, R.; Page, N.; Qureshi, Q.
    This study focuses on Rajaji Tiger Reserve in Uttarakhand, within the Shivalik hills, to investigate the invasion patterns and ecological impacts of a major invasive plant species
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    PAN-India assessment and monitoring of endangered species covered under the Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitat Program (IDWH) - Snow leopard
    (Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2025) WII-MoEFCC
    In 2019, the MoEF&CC launched the 'Snow Leopard Population Assessment in India (SPAI)* program, as part of India's active participation in the National and Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program (NSLEP & GSLEP). India has contributed in three significant landscapes to NSLEP & GSLER viz. Hemis-Spiti, Nanda Devi-Gangotri, and Khangchendzonga-Tawang. Alongside twelve National Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Priorities (NSLEPs), these efforts are aimed at conserving snow leopard and its habitats. The SPAI was designed to generate scientifically robust national and state-wise population estimates of the snow leopard across the high altitude habitats both inside and outside protected areas. Its overarching goal is to gather reliable data to guide effective conservation efforts and policy decisions. Based on the consultations with the Chief Wildlife Wardens (CWLWS) of the states and Union Territories (UTs) the SPAI sampling exercise was effectively executed across the PAN-INDIA Assessment and Monitoring of Endangered Species Covered Under the Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats Program (IDWH) - SNOW LEOPARD Union Territories of Ladakh and Jammu & Kashmir and four snow leopard range states viz. Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh. The SPAI exercise was conducted from 2019 to 2023 following a two-step framework. Within this, the STEP-I involved a meticulous evaluation of snow leopard spatial distribution, incorporating habitat covariates into the analysis. This approach, founded on occupancy modeling, relied on data sourced from sign and interview surveys, comprehensive fieldwork, and precise geospatial mapping. This assessment culminated in the refinement of the snow leopard distribution map and the establishment of a foundational dataset for the stratification of snow leopard population sampling. In the STEP- II, snow leopard abundance estimation was achieved through camera trapping. Furthermore, comprehensive abundance assessments were conducted for the primary prey species at selected sites. Given the constraints posed by the situations of Covid-19, some states such as Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh conducted the STEP-I and II exercises simultaneously. Till 2016, a substantial third of the snow leopard range (spanning ca. 100,347 km2) had not received research attention, which was reduced to just 5%, mainly in small pockets of Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir; Uttarakhand, and Himachal Pradesh. However; status surveys in the recent years have increased the understanding on preliminary information about snow leopard or prey is available for 80% of the snow leopard range (ca. 79,745 km2), compared to 56% in 2016. To provide robust information on the snow leopard numbers, the SPAI exercise involved surveying the snow leopard habitats using a substantial network of camera traps. In total, the SPAI sampling exercise utilized 1,971 camera trap locations, leading to the identification of 241 unique individuals. These comprehensive findings allow for the estimation of a total snow leopard population of 718 individuals in India. A total of 126 unique snow leopard individuals were identified from the Union Territory of Ladakh, across a total of 956 camera trap locations, yielding an estimated density of 0.34 individuals/100 km2 and a population of477 individuals. Camera trapping efforts in 135 sites in the Union Territory of Jammu & Kashmir led to detection of 9 unique individuals across the snow leopard range. The estimated density was 0.75 individuals/100 km2 and population of 9 individuals. For the snow leopard range states, Himachal Pradesh recorded a total of 44 unique individuals identified across 284 camera trap locations. The density of snow leopard in the state ranged from 0.08 to 0.37 individuals/100 km2. The exercise was indicative of a mean population size of 51 individuals of snow leopard in Himachal Pradesh. The state of I PAN-INDIA Assessment and Monitoring of Endangered Species Covered Under the Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats Program (IDWH) - SNOW LEOPARD Uttarakhand recorded a total of 40 unique individuals, with a density ranging from 0.7 to 1.04 individuals/100 km2. The population estimates of snow leopard in Uttarakhand was 124. In the eastern Himalayan states, Sikkim, with a total of 99 camera trap locations, recorded a total of 14 unique individuals with an estimated density of 0.40 snow leopards/100 km2. The estimate was 21 snow leopards for this state. On the other hand, in Arunachal Pradesh, 8 unique snow leopards were identified across 115 camera trap locations. The density was 0.26 individuals/100 km2 and the population was estimated as 36 individuals in the state. In the Indian Himalayan region, two prey species dominate the diet of the snow leopard: the bharal or blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), and the Siberian ibex (Capra sibirica). Bharal exhibit a near-total range overlap with snow leopard across the greater and trans-Himalayan regions, while ibex occupy extensive ranges within the northwestern trans-Himalayan region. In the subalpine and alpine region Himalayan tahr and musk deer form important component to snow leopard diet. Other mountain ungulates, though less prominent, contribute to the diet and hold local importance. Himachal Pradesh is the only snow leopard range state in India where systematic surveys on its primary prey species have been conducted. Conversely, states like Arunachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir remain significantly understudied, while data from Uttarakhand and Sikkim are fragmented and localized. Ladakh, due to its visibility and accessibility, has a relatively well-documented history of ungulate monitoring. Limited long term data suggest a decline in ungulate populations across the Himalaya, except for the Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsoni), which has shown signs of recovery. Markhor (Capra falconeri) habitat shrank from 300 km2 in the 1940s to just 120 km2 by 2004-2005. Similarly, musk deer (Moschus spp.) in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary (Uttarakhand) have seen a steady decline from 3.7 individuals/km2 (1989-1991) to 1.2 individuals/km2 by 2000. A similar declining trend is evident in ibex (Capra sibirica) populations in Pin Valley National Park, Himachal Pradesh. Density estimates dropped from 2.3 individuals/km2 in 1989 to 1.2 individuals/km2 in 1997, with a further reduction to 0.37 individuals/km2 by 2012. These declines underscore the urgent need for targeted conservation efforts and systematic prey monitoring to ensure the long-term viability of snow leopard populations.