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Item Biodiversity assessment with emphasis on select faunal groups in the Hasdeo Arand Coal Field, Chhattisgarh(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2021) WIIIn India, the coal reserves predominantly occur in the Gondwana sediments of the East Central region in the states of Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and parts of West Bengal. The Hasdeo - Arand coal fields comprising of Tara, Parsa, Parsa East & Kente Basan (PEKB), and Kente Extension (collectively known as HACF henceforth in the report) in Chhattisgarh is one of the identified coal-bearing areas. More than 80% of the HACF and the landscape surrounding it is forested. The coal blocks demarcated HACF and the landscape surrounding it mostly occur in the forests. The Ministry of Forests and Climate Change, Government of India under section 2 (ii) of Forest Conservation Act vide F.Bo.8-31/21 O-FC dated 6th July 2011 granted in-principle (Stage I) forest clearance for diversion of 1898.328 hectares of forest land in Parsa East and Kante Besan captive coal block (PEKB coal block) situated in Surguja Forest Division. This approval was given despite the FAC recommending to reject this proposal in FAC meeting dated 23rd June 2011. Subsequently, the Stage II final forest clearance was granted by Government of India vide MoEF&CC's letter no 8-31 /2010/FC dated 15th March 2012. Aggrieved by the clearance granted by the MoEF&CC, an appeal no 73 of 2012 (Sudiep Shrivastava Vs Union of India Ors) was filed in the Hon'ble National Green Tribunal (NGT) principal bench in Delhi. The Hon'ble NGT pronounced its judgement on 24th March, 2014 directing MoEF&CC to seek a fresh advisory from the FAC with emphasis on seeking answers to the following questions: (reproduced from the order) - (i) What type of flora and fauna in terms of bio-diversity and forest cover existed as on the date of the proposal in PEKB Coal Blocks in question. (ii) is/was the PEKB Coal Blocks habitat to endemic or endangered species of flora and fauna. (iii) Whether the migratory route/corridor of any wild animal particularly, elephant passes through the area in question and, if yes, its need. (iv) Whether the area of PEKB Block has that significant conservation/protection value so much so that the area cannot be compromised for coal mining with appropriate conservation/management strategies. (v) What is their opinion about opening the PEKB Coal Blocks for mining as per the sequential mining and reclamation method proposed as well as the efficacy of the translocation of the tree vis-a-vis the gestation period for regeneration of the flora (vi) What is their opinion about the Wildlife Management plan finally prescribed. (vii) What conditions and restriction do they propose on the mining in question, if they favour such mining? The judgement granted liberty to FAC to get expert opinion/specialized knowledge/advice from authoritative sources such as Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (lCFRE), Dehradun or Wildlife Institute of India (WII). This judgement of the Hon'ble NGT and stage-I clearance granted for prospecting over 1745.883 hectares of forest land of Kente Extension coal block for exploration of coal reserves vide MoEF&CC letter No. F.No 8-46/2017 -FC dated 19th December 2017 impose a condition that a biodiversity assessment study for entire HACF would be conducted by the State Government of Chhattisgarh through ICFRE, Dehradun in consultation with the WII. The condition is reproduced for reference: "(ii) A biodiversity assessment study is to be conducted by the state government through ICFRE, Dehradun in consultation with the Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun for the whole Hasdeo Arand coal field comprising of Tara, Parsa, Parsa East, kante to be funded by M/s Rajashthan Rajya Vidyut ll Page Utpadan Nigam Limited (RRVUNL). The study is to be awarded by the state Government by associating the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) Dehradun or Wildlife Institute of India (WII) and integrated wildlife management plan (IWMP) will be prepared and conservation area will be identified and mitigation measures will be recommended by the expert committee. The cost of the study and cost of implementation of the recommendations shall be borne by the Mis Rajasthan Rajya Vidyut Utpadan Nigam Limited (RRVUNL). The report will be submitted within two years". The main objectives of the biodiversity assessment that ICFRE and WII would jointly focus include: a. Provide details of flora & fauna with special reference to endemic threatened species reported from the study area b. Describe the habitat for such endemic/threatened species and identify likely threats for conservation c. Details of migratory route corridor critical areas for wildlife species especially umbrella species like elephants and tigers d. Document socio-economic values of the affected area vis-a-vis biodiversity values e. Consult with forest department officials, local communities in HACF and f. Identification of conservation areas within HACF Consequently, the biodiversity assessment focusing on faunal aspects of HACF was carried out by WII with ICFRE as the nodal agency for the overall assessment. The biodiversity assessment focusing on faunal aspects carried out by WII in the HACF and the landscape surrounding it using on-foot sign surveys and camera trap surveys (for mammalian baselineassessment); transect surveys (for avifaunal baseline assessment), ad libitum sampling for Herpetofaunain conjunction with secondary data and information obtained from Chhattisgarh Forest Department andthe village interview surveys established the ecological baseline information on faunal biodiversity. It isenvisaged in the ToR that impact assessment would be done for the Hasdeo-Arand coal fieldcomprising of Parsa, Parsa East & Kente Basan (PEKB), Tara Central and Kente Extension coal blocks. Of the four coal blocks mentioned, only PEKB is currently operational. Therefore, Wil's impact assessment (Chapter-7), mitigation of impacts (Chapter-S) and preparation of biodiversity conservation and management plan (Chapter-g) focuses on PEKB coal block. Nevertheless, landscape-level suggestions for managing wildlife in HACF and the landscape surrounding it have been detailed in the report. Opencast mining and associated developmental activities in forested habitats could potentially affect a variety of taxonomic groups. Nevertheless, measurement of every aspect of biodiversity in forested landscapes that span several hundred squares kilometers of mosaic habitats in a short period of time is seldom easy. In order to overcome this constraint, short-cut approaches that focus on monitoring large mammal populations, which serve as keystone, flagship or umbrella species have been advocated. As biodiversity assessment, impact assessment and mitigation strategies are to be studied at a landscape level, this study emphasized specially on the "umbrella species concept". The umbrella species concept is a globally accepted concept wherein conservation efforts targeted for a well -chosen representative species can confer a protective umbrella to numerous other co-occurring species in the landscape. Asian elephant and tigers serve as umbrella species in the tropical forested landscapes. Both tigers and elephants are long ranging and have specific ecological needs. Understanding the ecological requirements of these species can augur well for all other species found in the landscape.The results of the assessment show that HACF and the landscape surrounding it is rich in fauna. The HACF and landscape surrounding it supports over 25 species of mammals. The mammals of the Order Chiroptera and Rodentia (except for Ratufa indica that is included in the list) were not surveyed as that would require a long term duration and thus, the number of species reported in the assessment is best considered minimal. Among the mammal species recorded the Hasdeo - Arand area, nine species are listed in the Schedule - I, which are accorded the highest level of legal protection under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Mammalian species diversity includes threatened large carnivores like common leopard, Indian grey wolf, striped hyena, sloth bear, and others that appears to be widely distributed as evidenced by camera trap captures as well as detections during sign surveys. The Hasdeo Arand area is spread across three districts, viz. Surguja, Surajpur and Korba. The Korba district has two Forest Divisions (FD) viz. Korba FD and Katghora FD. The Korba FD had reported occurrence of tigers. The habitat connectivity between HACF along with the landscape surrounding it, and Achanakmar TR, Boramdeo WS and Kanha TR is strong, and may support sporadic tiger dispersal. Elephant occurrence was reported by the Forest Department in 148 out of 647 compartments in HACF and the landscape surrounding it with an area of 363.98 km2 during the period 2018 to 2020. The elephant occurrence is not restricted to any particular area and is spread across the landscape (Map- 21 , page 56). A conservative estimate of about 40 to 50 elephants could use different parts of the landscape at different times of the year. Human-elephant conflict in the form of crop losses and occasional property damage is widespread too. Elephant conservation and management in the landscape hinges on effective conflict resolution strategies by actively engaging with local communities and at the same time enriching the habitat condition for elephants. Chhattisgarh human-elephant conflict situation is a paradox with a relatively low number of elephants «300, which is <1 % of India's wild elephant population) but high levels of HEC with over 60 human lives are lost every year due to conflict (>15% of the reported human deaths due to HEC). In addition to loss of human lives, crop loss and damage to property due to HEC are severe. There is continuous dispersal of elephant herds from the neighbouring states of Jharkhand and Odisha. The study carried out by WII in collaboration with Chhattisgarh Forest Department from the year 2017 onwards clearly highlight that elephants have large home ranges. The forests that elephants currently occur are highly fragmented and degraded due to incompatible land-use. Infrastructure development and mining are further fragmenting the habitats making conflict mitigation a huge challenge. In fragmented habitats conventional fencing approaches minimally work due to high perimeter to area ratio of habitats. The EC region harbours less than 1/10th « 3000) of country's elephants, but loses over 40% (over 200HEC-related deaths) of reported 500 HEC-related human fatalities in the country. The HEC-related human fatalities reported in the region are highly disproportionate to its elephant population in the country. The increasing levels of HEC have resulted in considerable public resentment against the management and elephant conservation as a whole. HEC resolution is challenging in EC region due to fragmentation, loss and degradation of intact elephant habitats. In highly fragmented areas, the elephant home ranges tend to be large as small, degraded forest patches cannot sustain herds. It is observed that home range size is a function of habitat quality - in areas that support good intact habitats, the elephant home ranges are relatively small (eg. Rajaji, Mudumalai etc). However, in fragmented areas, elephant home ranges are typically large. The elephant herds are generally interlinked and home ranges spread over two or more states. One of the main reasons as to why elephants start dispersing into human-use areas is the threat to habitat. In particular, threat to elephant home ranges. While threat to habitat can be identified and sometimes even addressed, threats within individual home ranges of elephants are hard to evaluate and hence, difficult to mitigate. The latter threats are more insidious and lasting. Major disturbances to habitats such as mining not only cause habitat loss and fragmentation (as understood generally) but can affect individual herd's home ranges. Such disturbances can lead to abandonment of habitats as threats to home ranges have a threshold limits. The effect of mining on elephant habitat may not reflect in the same habitat, but could be a silent trigger for HEC in some other area within the landscape. In general, one of the reasons for HEC being disproportionately high in EC region is the elephant dispersal from forest habitats through fragmented human use areas. This large scale elephant dispersal out of intact forests coincide with commencement of large-scale mining projects and associate infrastructure developments in the EC region, particularly in the states of Odisha and Jharkhand. During the biodiversity assessment, a total of 92 species of birds were recorded with in HACF and the landscape surrounding it. The list is best considered minimal. As per the ebird (https:/Iebird.org/) a total of 406 species of birds have been reported in the three districts of Surguja, Surajpur, and Korba - the districts in which the HACF and the landscape surrounding it occurs. It is quite likely that many of the species of birds reported in HACF either use or pass through it. However, it may be noted that HACF and the landscape surrounding it just supports - 12.4% of the combined area (- 15,110 km2) of the three districts. Local communities in HACF and the landscape surrounding it are predominantly tribal. The livelihood of local communities is closely dependent on forest resources. The NTFP collection (of four major commodities) contribute nearly 46% of the monthly income reported by the households. This does not include the fuelwood, fodder, medicinal plants, water and other resources that local communities collect from the forests. If such resources are pooled as income to local communities, it may be conservatively mentioned that over 60 to 70% of the total annual income of local communities come from forest-based resources. Thus, forest dependence substantially adds to income security of local communities. In addition to financial gains, forest produce collection is critical for medicine, food and other health benefits thereby providing food security and overall well-being. The local communities have reported coming across a variety of wildlife in and around their settlements. A few respondents (n = 4) have even sighted tiger in and around their settlements. They expressed concern about human-wildlife conflict involving crop losses, loss of livestock, loss of property and occasional loss of human lives. Garnering the support of local communities for wildlife conservation would be conditional on addressing human-wildlife conflict on a real-time manner. In general, the local communities are apprehensive of mining, which is perceived as a threat to livelihood as the land as well as forests are lost in the process of mining. The community respondents interviewed expressed concern and were anxious over loss of forests (and consequently material base for livelihood) and loss of land due to mining. The loss of forests due to mining is perceived as a direct threat to livelihood by the local communities. The local communities express positivity towards forest conservation and at the same-time insist on timely resolution of human-wildlife conflicts. Conservation initiatives in the landscape need to be participative and actively involve local communities. Considering this, as part of the biodiversity assessment, and as envisaged in the ToR of the study, the impact of the ongoing mine of PEKB in the HACF has been assessed. It may be noted that the impact assessment carried out by WII for PEKB coal block is not a true Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) as PEKB coal block is already operational covering nearly 1000 hectares of the 1898 hectares cleared for mining. Coal extraction is already being done and is in operational stage. Therefore, visualizing the true picture of the likely impacts on the physical environment as well as the wildlife the area supports is not possible. Nevertheless, selected impacts of the physical environment that are likely to impact directly on select biodiversity and social values in the PEKB operation have been identified. For this purpose, the faunal biodiversity list provided by Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM) as part of the EIA for PEKB (IIFM, 2009) was used as the baseline for evaluating the impacts. In general, the impact assessment methods argue that the foremost step in impact appraisal must consider and identify project actions that are likely to bring significant changes in the project environment. Such impacts include: physical, biological and social environments. The potential impacts due to ongoing mining operations of PEKB on physical environment, fauna and local communities have been elaborated. The possible mitigation strategies for addressing the impacts of PEKB include progressive restoration, development of grass and leaf fodder plots, livelihood options to increase income sources, bio-filter check dams in the streams of the project sites, green-belt development - phytoremediation, development of "Green Gallery Belt", eco-restoration of waste dump, construction of underpasses, construction of pipe and box culverts as safe passages in the roads as mitigation strategies for reducing road mortality. The detailed mitigation strategies have been provided. The biodiversity conservation and management for PEKB focusing on species groups, threatened plant & animals, resource base of local communities along with the social values have been given. The Human-Elephant conflict mitigation strategies in the HACF and surrounding landscape should include the following: 1. Maintaining the ecological integrity of intact natural habitats without fragmentation and degradation is critical. Any additional mining leading to loss of habitat would escalate HEC unpredictably high 2. Formation of landscape-level Rapid Response Teams by engaging village youth with adequate remuneration is essential. The RRT members should be adequately trained in elephant behaviour and conflict management methods. 3. Judicious use of mobile barriers in select areas of HACF and surrounding landscape where HEC is high need to be experimented with active community participation. 4. Ex gratia payment for crop, property and other losses due to elephants have adequate and timely. The overall process of filing and obtaining compensation by villages should be made smooth and transparent 5. Habitat enrichment by improving surface water availability in carefully selected locations, development of grasslands and fodder base based on the list of plants suggested in the report and protection of critical micro-habitats such as riparian tracts are critical (Refer Table 9.23). 6. Human-elephant conflict is dynamic in nature. The above mentioned mitigation measures need to be experimented in smaller areas and based on the evaluation of efficacy can be scaled up. As certain portions of the PEKB block has already been opened for mining, the miningoperation may only be permitted in the already operational mine of the block. The other areasin HACF and landscape surrounding it should be declared as Uno-go areas" and no mining should be carried out considering the irreplaceable, rich biodiversity and socio cultural values. The HACF and the landscape surrounding it support rich biodiversity with a multitude of mammalianspecies including elephants and also harbours forest-dependent communities. Therefore, sustaining the forest cover and maintaining its overall ecological integrity is essential. It is pertinent that Chhattisgarh Forest Department with due consultation and involvement of local communities identify areas within HACF and the landscape surrounding it for declaration as Conservation Reserve (CR) under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Under the ambit of a CR, habitat improvement activities such as restoration of grasslands and restoration of degraded forests; improving surface water availability in relatively drier tracts during summer, regulating forest fires, and improving overall protection can benefit biodiversity. 2 The response pertaining to this query shall be provided by ICFRE as it deals with nora and efficacy of translocation of the tree vis-a-vis the gestation period for regeneration of the nora The coal mines along with the associated infrastructure development would result in loss and fragmentation of habitat. Mitigating such effects on wildlife, particularly the animals with large home ranges such as elephants is seldom possible. The human-elephant conflict in the state is already acute and has been escalating with huge social and economic costs on the marginal, indigenous local communities. Any further threat to elephants' intact habitats in this landscape could potentially deflect human-elephant conflict into other newer areas in the state, where conflict mitigation would be impossible for the state to manage. Opening up of coal blocks for minging in the HACF would compromise the imperatives of biodiversity conservation and livelihood of forest-dependent local. Even the effects of the operational PEKB mine need to be tactfully mitigated too, wherever possible. The assessment findings are in conformity with the study undertaken jointly by the Ministry of Coal and Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change across nine coal fields across the country during the year 2009, where it was concluded that the Hasdeo-Arand coal fields in north-central Chhattisgarh is identified as a 'no-go' area. The findings of this joint study of 2009 culminated into an important policy decision towards facilitating an objective, transparent and informed decision regarding forest lands being diverted for coal mining projects. However, the findings of the study were set aside during 2011 . Considering the need to reconcile country's developmental needs with conservation priorities, the recommendations of the 2009 joint study holds substantial importance for ecologically balanced sustainable growth.Item Capacity building initiative on the dispersal and ranging patterns of elephants for effective management of human-elephant interactions(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2022) Nigam, P.; Pandav, B.; Mondol, S.; Lakshmiarayanan, N.; Kumar, A.; Nandwanshi, V.B.; Das, J.; Biswas, S.; Udhayaraj, A.D.; Vishwakarma, R.; Habib, B.; Miachieo, K.; Narasingh Rao, P.V.Wild Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) populations are distributed in four major regions namely North West, North-East, East-Central and Southern regional meta-populations across India. Amongst them, the East-central regional population spread across the States of Odisha, Jharkhand, southern West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, and lately in Madhya Pradesh suffers disproportionately high levels of human elephant conflict. Among the myriad challenges facing management of human-elephant conflict in the region, elephant range expansion into new areas is overriding. One such range expansion that resulted in acute human-elephant conflict is being witnessed in the State of Chhattisgarh. Although northern Chhattisgarh was historically an elephant range, elephants reportedly disappeared during the period 1920 to late 1980s. While episodes of sporadic elephant occurrence in Chhattisgarh was reported during the period 1988- 1993, contemporary range expansion and concomitant human-elephant conflict began from the year 2000, and has accelerated during the last one decade. Faced with an enormous challenge of managing human-elephant conflict that is spatiotemporally dynamic unlike that of other elephant range States, constrained by limited Institutional capacities to assess and deal with the issue. Chhattisgarh Forest Department has been trying diversity its conflict mitigation strategies. Recognizing the need to objectively evaluate human-elephant conflict situation in the State, during the year 2017 Chhattisgarh Forest Department invited Wildlife Institute of India to conduct ecological research on elephants in Chhattisgarh with a three-year budget outlay. The project was a collaborative effort between Chhattisgarh Forest Department and WII. Considering the scope of the project, the project duration was further extended and eventually, the project lasted for the period July 2017 to March 2022. Being the final project report, the activities carried out as part of the project is summarized as under. Distribution and Demography In Chhattisgarh, the elephant distribution during the period 2012 to 2017 was reported from 16 Forest Divisions and four Protected Areas in the north and north-central regions of the state. The elephant population, as enumerated by Chhattisgarh Forest Department during 2021 , ranged from 250 to 300. The adult sex ratio recorded during the study was 1: 4.5. About 44% of the female segment of the population comprised of adults. Chhattisgarh elephant population is presently contiguous with other elephant populations in the neighboring states i.e., Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand and in Odisha occurring as a meta-population 1 and thus cannot be considered as an isolated population. However, within Chhattisgarh, the population is relatively small and it occurs scattered over a large area as small and disjunctive groups facing a perpetual risk of getting isolated by ongoing linear infrastructure and other associated developmental activities in the State. If such groups get isolated, then they will not be viable in the long run. 1 Meta-population: Population of small populations that are connected through dispersals 1 O. ~ . -~ 1 -WU.d.U.fe .In.s-titu-te. o.f .In.di a Home Range, Movement Patterns & Dispersal, and Habitat Selection by Elephants During the period 2018-2022, WII-CGFD collaborative effort resulted in 10 elephant radio collaring in Chhattisgarh. The resultant effort provided 3106 elephant days of tracking information. Each of the radiocollared elephants provided an average of 310.6 (± 273) days of tracking data. As on 31 51 March 2022 when WII-CGFD collaborative project ended, two of the collared elephants (SD - Sehradev and MT - Maitri) were having functional collars. The estimated average home range (95% minimum convex polygon) of elephants in Chhattisgarh was 3172.8 km2 (± 2002.2 km2, Range: 462.3 - 6969.7 km2). The 95% kernel density home ranges of elephants were much lower averaging 512.3 km2 (± 235.3 km2, Range: 126.5 - 748.9 km2). The elephant home ranges were not wholly well defined, and marked by inter-annual shifts caused by exploratory behaviour. The elephant home ranges were relatively large. The dry season home ranges were significantly lower than monsoon and winter ranges. However, dry season home ranges of elephants are larger. The present study indicates that habitat quality in some of the forest patches - particularly those that are large and contiguous with minimal of human interference can potentially support elephants in the landscape. Thus, dry season ranges of elephants could serve as a surrogate for habitat quality. Monthly variations in home ranges were significant, and best explained by idiosyncrasies of individual elephants. Among the forest types open, moderately dense and very dense forests classified by Forest Survey of India based on crown densities, elephants selected open forests, that were predominantly juxtaposed with human-use areas. Although the crown density was low, the patches of open forests support dense stands of Sal (Shorea robusta) coppice with rank undergrowth offering adequate cover for elephants. Elephant habitat selection of these open forest patches appears to be influenced by potential foraging opportunities in human-use areas, and further facilitated by low inter-patch distance. Genetic Structure of Elephants Using 258 genetic samples collected from 9 Forest Divisions, elephant genetic structure in northern Chhattisgarh was evaluated. Analysis indicates that at least two different elephant lineages occur in Chhattisgarh. This implies that elephants occurring in Chhattisgarh have possibly come from different areas. Within the two different lineages, high relatedness amongst the individuals was observed corroborating with the general social structure of Asian elephant clans where individuals are mostly related. Crop Losses and Human Fatalities due to Elephants Crop losses caused by elephants were acute and widespread in Chhattisgarh. To draw an analogy, Karnataka's ex gratia payment towards crop losses by elephants during the period 2015-2020 was comparable with Chhattisgarh, although the former's elephant population is 93% more than the latter. The landscape-level assessment covering the whole of northern Chhattisgarh, and fine-scale assessment covering select areas in Surguja circle identified correlates of crop losses at both spatial scales. Elephant-related human deaths were widespread in the state. However, nearly 70% of incidences occurred in areas of high intensity of habitat-use by elephants. The human fatalities due to elephants were both temporally and spatially auto-correlated. 2Item Ecology of Dhole (Cuon alpinus Pallas) in Central India(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2006) Acharya, Bhaskar B.; Johnsingh, A.J.T.; Sankar, K.The objectives of the project in Pench Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh, were to estimate the seasonal abundance of dhole prey species, the diet of the dhole packs from their scats and kills, to determine patterns of habitat use and range sizes of dhole packs, to estimate temporal changes in size and composition of dhole packs, and the processes behind such changes, to screen captured dhole and other animals for diseases, and estimate the probability of contact with potential disease carriers, to devise standardised protocols for dhole population surveys and to estimate dhole population size for the Tiger Reserve.Item Tigers of the Transboundary Terai Arc Landscape: Status, distribution and movement in the Terai of India and Nepal(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2014) Chanchani, P.; Lamichhane, B.R.; Malla, S.; Maurya, K.; bista, A.; Warrier, R.; Nair, S.; Almeida, M.; Ravi, R.; Sharma, R.; Dhakal, M.; Yadav, S.P.; Thapa, M.; Jnawali, S.R.; Pradhan, N.M.B.; Thapa, G.J.; Yadav, H.; Jhala, Y.V.; Qureshi, QamarWhile the conservation of tigers is emphasized in protected areas throughout their range countries, the species continues to be distributed in forests of varying protection status, and in habitats that span international borders. Although India and Nepal share a long border in the Terai belt, this area that was once forested is now largely agricultural, and wildlife is restricted to remnant forest patches. This study details the status of tiger and ungulate prey species populations in around 5300 km2 transboundary Terai Arc Landscape (TAL), documents the movement of tigers between forests in India and Nepal based on camera trap data and makes specific recommendations for the conservation of tigers and their prey in Transboundary TAL. Notable protected area within the study area includes Chitwan and Bardia National Parks in Nepal and Dudhwa and Valmiki Tiger reserves in India. This study was carried out in 7 protected areas and reserve forests in India, and 5 protected areas, three biological corridors (protected forests) and adjoining forest patches in Nepal. Occupancy surveys for animal signs involved 4496 kilometres of foot surveys in Nepal and India. Between November 2012 and June 2013, these sites were sampled with a total of 1860 camera trap stations, with a total sampling effort of 36,266 trap nights. Nearly 9000 km2 of tiger habitat was sampled with camera traps. 3370 kilometres of line transects (n=239) were sampled in the landscape. Cumulatively, this sampling exercise is the largest survey effort of its kind in the Terai Arc Landscape to date, and involved partnerships between National and State government agencies, research institutions, non-governmental organizations and members of local communities who participated in the research. Data analysis was carried out using contemporary analytical methods including site occupancy models, spatial explicit capture recapture models and distance sampling framework. Site occupancy was estimated to be 0.55 (0.44-0.66) in Nepal and 0.77 (0.67-0.85) in the region between Nandhaur WLS and Suhelwa WLS in India. A total of 239 individual adult tigers were identifi ed from camera trap photos, of which 89 were adult males and 145 were adult females. 5 animals could not be ascribed a gender from camera trap data. Site-specific minimum tiger numbers varied from 3 in Banke National Park in Nepal to 78 in Chitwan National Park, also in Nepal. Tiger numbers and/or abundances in other sites within the Transboundary landscape were estimated to lie within this range, with notably large populations in Bardia National Park and Pilibhit Tiger Reserve, and smaller populations in Dudhwa National Park, and Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary and Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve. Tiger densities in the Transboundary Terai Arc Landscape range between 0.16/100 km2 in Banke National Park, Nepal to 4.9/ 100 km2 in Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary, India. Spatial heterogeneity in tiger densities has been mapped for the entire study area. Densities of principal ungulate prey species of tigers were found to vary widely across sites, and while density estimates in some protected areas in Nepal were as high as 92.6/km2 (Bardia National park), they were seven fold lower in other sites in India and Nepal (13.6 in Dudhwa National Park and 10.7 in Banke National Park). While habitat connectivity has severely been compromised in this landscape, tigers exist as one wholly-connected population in the protected areas of Chitwan National Park, Nepal and Valmiki Tiger Reserve, India as well as in Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve, Nepal and the Lagga-Bagga Block of Pilibhit Tiger Reserve, India. Other than these sites we photo-documented movement of tigers between Nepal and India along the Khata corridor (between Bardia National Park and Katerniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary) and Shuklaphanta - Tatarjanj - Pilibhit Corridor. We failed to document tiger movement in four other corridors: Boom-Brahmadev, Laljhadi, Basanta, and Kamdi. Forest connectivity has severely been compromised in these corridors by land use change. There are notably large differences in tiger and prey densities within and between sites. This study points to the infl uence of habitat (forest-grassland mosaics and riparian areas) on the distribution and density of tigers and their prey. However, these factors alone are likely to provide incomplete explanations for observed patterns. Observed patterns of tiger and prey densities are likely to also be on account of anthropogenic pressures on wildlife and their habitats in the form of poaching, livestock grazing and the entry of large numbers of wood and grass collectors deep into wildlife habitats. Another significant threat to the survival of tigers and other mammals arises from the proposed development of new roads in Nepal and India that may severely degrade the region’s fragile corridors. The establishment of new settlements near existing tiger habitats constitutes encroachment, and poses a significant challenge for conservation in some parts of this landscape. The continued use of two forest corridors between Nepal and India by tigers and other large mammals is encouraging. The dispersal of tigers between sites plays an important role in maintaining demographically stable and genetically robust populations. The most pressing task for conservation is to protect these corridors and to re-establish connectivity between other sites by restoring corridors that have been eroded by development and land-use change. There are also significant opportunities to build conservation and development programs that emphasize the protection of the Terai’s remnant wilderness areas, while also attending to legitimate needs of forest-dependent human communities. This report also identifies key interventions that are needed to secure the future of tigers in the Terai. These include policy initiatives, important interventions to create functional biological corridors, key enforcement and protection measures, prescriptions for community involvement in conservation and identifying important themes for future research and monitoring. To set tangible management and conservation targets, recommended actions under these themes have been listed separately for twenty four sites in the transboundary TAL. The future of tigers and other large mammals in Nepal and India are intertwined, as is the wellbeing of the peoples of the Terai who live along this forested frontier. Building effective partnerships for conservation between the governments, conservation organizations and civil society of India and Nepal, and working toward common goals are imperative to maintain and promote populations of tigers and other endangered wildlife in this unique eco-region.Item Movement of Radio-collared tigers in the Eastern Vidarbha Landscape, Maharashtra, India(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2018) Habib, Bilal; Nigam, Parag; Hussain, Zehidul; Ghaskadbi, Pallavi SurendraTo understand the movement ecology of tigers in the Eastern Vidarbha Landscape, focusing on individual patterns of space use in general, utilization distribution in different areas and landscape, spatio-temporal activity and effect of environmental features on animal movement, the point-wise objectives are as follows: 1. To understand the movement of tigers that drives population connectivity on a landscape scale and effect of environmental features on dispersal. 2. To validate the modeled corridors and identify new functional corridor and habitats in a highly dynamic landscape. 3. Directly aiding effective conservation and management of tigers beyond the Protected Area (PA) system as a result of real-time data from radio-collars.Item Telemetry based tiger corridors of Vidarbha Landscape, Maharashtra India(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2021) Habib, Bilal; Nigam, P.; Mondal, I.; Hussain, Z.; Ghaskadbi, P.; Govekar, R.S.; Praveen, N.R.; Banerjee, J.; Ramanujam, R.M.; Ramagaonkar, J.The Vidarbha Landscape (VL) is very important as it harbours a population of about 331 tigers and forms the connecting link between the central and southern Indian tiger populations. It plays a pivotal role in exchange of individuals and thereby facilitates gene flow between these two populations increasing the viability of tiger populations in India. There are 8 protected areas or wildlife divisions where these tigers live, but these refuges are scattered like islands in a sea of human dominated landscape. Therefore, knowing the locations of tiger movement corridors and probable areas of human tiger conflict is especially important for a wildlife manager.Item Long term conservation plan for hangul Part II Hangul movement pattern study using GPS satellite telemetry - final report(2016-20)(Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 2021) Ahmad K.The globally viable single population of Kashmir Red Deer or Hangul (Cervus hanglu hanglu), one of the critically endangered subspecies of the Central Asian Deer is restricted to a confined area of 141 km2 Dachigam National Park (34°05ʹ to 34°32ʹN; 74°50ʹ to 75°16ʹE) in the Greater Himalayan mountain range of the Northwest Himalayan biogeographic region zone 2A, with some stray populations occurring in the adjoining relic range areas (Ahmad et al. 2009; Qureshi et al. 2009). Earlier, the species was widely distributed in the mountain of Kashmir Himalayas along the entire Greater Himalayan mountain range (Gee 1965; Schaller 1969; Prater, 1993; Nowak, 1999) declined drastically in the recent past from 5000 Individuals prior to 1947 to less than 200 Individuals at present. Current trends in the Hangul population indicate that the species could go extinct if necessary serious interventions are not made immediately and as such there was need to undertake urgent measures to hold the declining trends in the Hangul population (Ahmad et.al. 2009: Qureshi et.al. 2009; Ahmad et.al 2013). Therefore, understanding the ecology and biology particularly the movement ecology of this critically endangered deer species with small single population was fundamental to develop better strategies for conservation and management practices. The present study duly funded by the MOEF & CC, Government of India was as such initiated to understand the lesser known aspects of movement ecology and behaviour of this last viable population of the Hangul for its effective management, conservation planning and species population recovery under the following objectives: 1) Studying the seasonal Home range size and ranging and movement patterns of Hangul in and outside Dachigam National Park vis-à-vis Hangul migration route, important stop-over sites, and barriers and corridors to migration into the Hangul’s relic areas.2) Studying the lesser known aspects of Hangul ecology viz., habitat use, activity patterns, behaviour and predation prerequisite for effective long term management and conservation of Hangul and its habitats. 3) To identify the potential habitats used by Hangul outside Dachigam and assess and evaluate the extent and magnitude of habitat conditions and threats therein. 4) To identify threats, anthropogenic pressures and other factors particularly predation pressure by leopard and meso-carnivores that impact Hangul distribution and movement patterns. The capture and Satellite collaring of five Hangul (2 males, 3 female) successfully conducted for the first time under this project has been a milestone achievement in the field of satellite telemetry. The findings of this research study indicated that the Home range size varied from 4.98 Km2 in spring to 7.83 Km2 in summer. One of the female collared Hangul showed movement patterns outside Dachigam National Park towards Sindh forest division crossing the river Sindh and covering an area of 137.94 km, with area use of 10.86-12.26 Km2 in summer 2019 to 137.94 km in summer 2020 and a maximum home range of 124.4 km2 in Summer 2020 to colonize and establish its new summer habitat in the erstwhile range area of Wangath-Naranag Conservation Reserve (CR). The data and information generated has enabled us to identify the corridor areas of movement of the Hangul from Dachigam National Park and outside in the 3 Long Term Conservation Plan for Hangul Part II: Hangul Movement Pattern Study Using GPS-Satellite Telemetry adjoining erstwhile range areas in north and south and habitats assessment therein. The data generated also indicated that Hangul shows two activity peaks in morning and evening hours with significant seasonal variations. The findings of the study are of great ecological significance as the significant information generated through this research on the lesser known aspects of movement ecology including animal home ranges and habitat use, biology and behaviour of the Hangul deer would go long way in supporting the management interventions for population recovery and long term survival of this endemic deer of India in Dachigam National Park and its erstwhile range areas in Kashmir Himalayas. Major management and conservation Intervention recommendations 1. The study revealed that major and viable population of Hangul are confined to Dachigam National Park. Despite availability of ideal summer habitats for the Hangul in upper Dachigam, these alpine meadow habitats are not being explored or used by Hangul. The satellite collared Hangul movements indicated that the animals showed upward movements to Dagwan alpine meadows of upper Dachigam but restricted their movements further in to the alpine meadows, possibly due to heavy disturbances of excessive livestock grazing there. 2. Management interventions are as such required towards expansion of Range of Hangul to alpine meadows of Upper Dachigam and potential corridor areas outside Dachigam NP identified through this research, so that these ideal summer habitats are recuperated and used by Hangul in summer as it used to in the past and to ensure gene flow between the Dachigam and adjoining range populations. 3. Hangul conservation breeding-cum- reintroduction programme is imperative to expand the range of Hangul by restocking and augmenting the small isolated Hangul populations in its relic range areas outside Dachigam National Park starting with the Overa Wildlife Sanctuary which has ideal disturbance free habitats available. 4. The Hangul species recovery programme through a project mode by initiation of Project Hangul on the pattern of Project Tiger is crucial to ensure Hangul species recovery and long term survival of the species and its landscapes in the region. 5. This research study as indicated by earlier studies by the Investigator (s) has revealed that besides poaching and continued degradation of Hangul summer habitats in Upper Dachigam, along with biotic interference in winter habitats, low breeding, female biased sex ratio, the problem of survival of the young and inadequate recruitment of calf to adulthood due to factors such as considerable predation by common Leopard, Asiatic Black Bear, dogs and meso-carnivores (Fox and Jackal) are major challenges for the long term survival of the Hangul in the landscape. 6. The study revealed a significant contribution of Hangul in the diet of Golden jackal (9.09%) and Red fox (6.45%). These ecological issues threatening the long term survival of Hangul need to be investigated and addressed further on long term basis through initiating a breeding biology study to better understand the causes of low breeding and fawn/calf survival in the Hangul population in Dachigam National Park and the adjoining landscape. 7. This research study and the earlier studies by the Investigator (s) has indicated that species due to its small population size, restricted range distribution, critically endangered status, ecological threats long Term Conservation Plan for Hangul Part II: Hangul Movement Pattern Study Using GPS-Satellite Telemetry and potentially low genetic variation is at the brink of extinction and needs immediate management interventions to reverse the declining trend in the population. The regulated monitoring of the Hangul populations on a long-term scientific basis using latest techniques of satellite collaring, camera trapping and population genomics is imperative. 8. Strengthening Hangul genome sequencing to understand the DNA mitochondrial based phylogeography of the species and Skull based genetic investigations to link the mitochondrial DNA analysis findings with the nuclear genetic analysis to further establish the degree of closeness or divergence between Hangul and the Bactrian deer.